Habiba is an Afghan woman who fled Taliban rule to pursue a master’s degree in engineering in Iran. But in July, she was deported just before she was about to complete her studies.

The 31-year-old, who declined to give her family name for fear of repercussions, said she returned to her homeland with little more than her laptop and documents. These were the last traces of a future she nearly secured, as she is one of hundreds of thousands forced to return as Iran ramped up expulsions of Afghans in the wake of its war with Israel.

Habiba said she had just saved enough to complete her thesis, the final step before graduation, and now will have to start over in a country where women are barred from high school, let alone university.

Why are there so many deportations?

Aid agencies say accusations by Iranian authorities that Afghan nationals were spying for Israel triggered a surge in deportations. The two countries share a 920km land border through a flat, arid landscape.

Iranian officials maintain that those deported were undocumented and most left voluntarily, citing security and resource concerns. Interior Minister Eskandar Momeni said in July that 70 per cent of the one million who left since March did so by choice, local media reported.

Local media quoted Nader Yarahmadi, an adviser to Iran’s Interior Ministry and head of its Centre for Foreign Nationals and Immigrants Affairs, as saying that temporary census cards held by about 2 million Afghan nationals were invalidated from March. He stated that they had until July to leave. An additional 2 million Afghans in Iran had no documents, he said.

The number of Afghans returning exploded after Israel and Iran fought a 12-day war in June. But Iranian officials have downplayed espionage claims as isolated media reports. The crackdown is on illegal immigrants, Yarahmadi said.

Aid workers at Islam Qala said some of the returnees arrived after days without food or water. Momeni said deportations were conducted with “respect and dignity”, but admitted the war triggered rushed exits, leaving many without their wages or possessions.

Afghan women have lost opportunities as Iran expels refugees amid war tensions, leaving many to start over in a restrictive homeland. Photo: AFP

Struggles of returnees

The flood of refugees returning to Afghanistan from Iran and Pakistan is straining aid in a country already grappling with economic collapse, donor fatigue and a ban on girls’ secondary education.

But it is the post-conflict purge from Iran that has overwhelmed Afghan authorities and aid workers, many of whom say they were unprepared for the scale and speed of the deportations.

The Taliban-led government has urged Iran to proceed gradually and allow returnees time to settle financial affairs and retrieve personal property.

Rahela, 37, said she had built a steady livelihood in Tehran as a certified make-up artist and seamstress. Now back in the Afghan city of Herat with her two daughters, she said she could see no future.

She said she separated from her husband several years ago after he struggled with drug addiction and had been raising her daughters alone ever since.

The Taliban’s restrictions bar women from most forms of employment and from travelling long distances without a male guardian.

Her elderly father could not accompany her or provide support, leaving her effectively confined, she said.

While the women who have returned spoke of lost rights and opportunities, Afghan men described split families, derailed plans and an uncertain future.

Rahim Uzbek, 59, said he was arrested at his job as a security guard, deported alone, and is now living in a mosque near the Islam Qala crossing, away from his two wives and seven children who remained in Iran, although they were also Afghan nationals.

He said that he had some money tied up in an advance payment for rent in Iran, but the landlord did not return it.

“I have no assets or savings, nor do I have any shelter or place to stay,” he said, with tears in his eyes. “I have no idea what to do.”

Rahim Uzbek, 59, an Afghan national who was deported from Iran, stands outside a camp for returning migrants near the Islam Qala border crossing in Herat province, Afghanistan. Photo: Reuters

Mansoor Ahmad, 21, a metalworker from Kabul, said he was arrested at work and deported without his family.

He said Iranian officers accused him of helping someone escape a deportation camp and beat him when he denied it.

“When I spoke, they beat me. When I stayed silent, they beat me again,” he said. “Then they put me in solitary.”

Red marks and bruises were visible on his back and shoulders, consistent with being struck or kicked.

Iranian officials deny systemic abuse. The Iranian ambassador’s deputy in Kabul, Alireza Bigdeli, said there were no official reports of mistreatment but acknowledged “some may be unhappy with the way they were treated, detained, or returned”.

Iranian authorities say they tried to prevent family separations but admit the post-war rush split some families. Students were encouraged to leave with relatives under a voluntary return plan.

While many of the Afghans said life in Iran was tough, marked by discrimination, high costs and a constant sense of being unwelcome, they still had goals. Some worked, others studied.

“The situation in Iran was very difficult,” Rahela said. “People treated us harshly. They humiliated and insulted us. But at least there was security and work. Women could work … and that was good for us.”