Western Thrace is a historical and geographical region in Greece, located on the border of Türkiye and Bulgaria, where the continents of Europe and Asia meet. Today, Western Thrace is separated from Türkiye to the east by the Maritsa River. The region remained under Ottoman rule until the First Balkan War of 1912-1913, when the Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories. Throughout centuries of Ottoman rule, however, a considerable Turkish population has resided in the area.

Fundamental source of legal rights

The fundamental source of rights for the Turkish Muslim minority of Western Thrace is the 1923 Lausanne Treaty, which was concluded within the framework of the Lausanne Conference. The conference produced 17 separate but related instruments, listed in the Final Act. The first is the “Treaty of Peace,” signed on July 24, 1923. The sixth is the “Convention respecting the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations and Protocol,” signed on Jan. 30, 1923.

Under the population exchange instrument, the Turkish Muslim population in Greece (except those in Western Thrace) and the Greek Orthodox population in Türkiye (except those in Istanbul, Gökçeada and Bozcaada) were subject to a population exchange. Article 2 of the convention specifically excluded Greek inhabitants of Istanbul and Muslims in Western Thrace. The convention was signed between “the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye and the Greek Government.”

The third section of the Treaty of Peace, titled “Protection of Minorities,” outlines minority rights. Articles 37 to 44 cover the rights of non-Muslim minorities in Türkiye, while Article 45 states that “the rights conferred by the provisions of the present Section on the non-Muslim minorities of Türkiye will be similarly conferred by Greece on the Muslim minority in her territory.”

Fundamental rights under the treaty include freedom of religion and language, equal civil and political rights, autonomy in religious affairs and education, and the ability to establish, manage, and control charitable, religious, and social institutions, schools, and other educational establishments.

Two articles are particularly important regarding education and religion. Article 41 mandates the Greek government to provide, in those towns and districts with significant Turkish Muslim populations, adequate facilities to ensure primary education is available in the Turkish language. Article 40 grants the Turkish Muslim minority the right to establish, manage and control, at their own expense, charitable, religious and social institutions, as well as schools and other establishments for instruction and education, with the freedom to use their own language and practice their religion.

Rights of the Turkish Muslim minority

Before the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, several agreements addressed the rights of Muslim minorities in Greece, including the London Protocol of Feb. 2, 1830, the Istanbul International Convention of May 24, 1881, the Treaty of Athens of Nov. 1-14, 1913 and Protocol No. 3, and the Greek Treaty of Sevres of Aug. 10, 1920. The Treaty of Lausanne did not completely annul these agreements. In fact, the Greek Treaty of Sevres, signed on Aug. 10, 1923, was deemed valid after undergoing some amendments, along with an additional protocol, at the Lausanne Conference.

In this context, the 16th of the 17 instruments in the Final Act of the Lausanne Conference is the “Protocol, signed on Aug. 24, 1923, relating to the Treaty, concluded at Sevres between the Principal Allied Powers and Greece on Aug. 10, 1920, concerning the Protection of Minorities in Greece.” It should be briefly mentioned that Article 14 of the mentioned treaty concerning the Protection of Minorities imposes obligations on Greece regarding Muslims to protect the mosques, cemeteries, other Muslim religious establishments and foundations (wakfs).

On the other hand, Article 11 of the 1913 Treaty of Athens between Greece and the Ottoman Empire contains essential provisions for the Muslim Turkish minority of Western Thrace. As per the article, Muslims are entitled to freedom and to practice their religion openly and there shall be no interference with the autonomy or hierarchical organization of existing or future Muslim communities or in the management of their funds or property. Additionally, the mentioned article stipulates that “Muslim voters shall elect each mufti in his own constituency.”

Greece`s continuing violations

Despite treaty obligations, Greece has been recklessly and continuously violating the various rights of the Turkish Muslim minority of Western Thrace, preventing members from fully enjoying their minority rights.

A primary point of contention is Greece’s refusal to recognize the minority’s Turkish identity. Greece denies the ethnic identity of the Turkish minority of Western Thrace because the Lausanne Peace Treaty refers to a “Muslim minority.” However, the convention and protocol signed between Türkiye and Greece on the exchange of Turkish and Greek populations of 1923 refer explicitly to Turks and Greeks. Besides, Greece itself made it compulsory for the minority to be referred to as “Turks” in the past and the minority schools were also called the “Turkish schools.”

Education rights have also been undermined. Greece has gradually restricted the Turkish minority’s access to schooling, citing austerity measures and declining student numbers. In August 2025, Greek authorities closed additional Turkish minority primary schools.

Religious freedoms remain a major issue, particularly the appointment of muftis. The Treaty of Lausanne and the 1913 Treaty of Athens guarantee the Turkish minority the right to organize and conduct religious affairs without government interference. However, the Greek government has directly appointed muftis for years, refusing to recognize those elected by the community. Currently, the elected muftis are still not recognized by the Greek government. Elected muftis have taken cases to the European Court of Human Rights, which has ruled against Greece on multiple occasions. The Greek government, however, has consistently declined to implement the court’s decisions.

What should be done?

Greece did not exist as a modern state until 1832, when it was officially established and recognized at the London Conference by Britain, France, and Russia. Before that, Hellenic-speaking Orthodox Greeks – known as Rum or Roman in the Ottoman Empire – lived across Anatolia, the Balkans, Russia, and what is now Greece. They were subjects of the Ottoman Empire for more than three and a half centuries. In Greek social memory, the Ottoman Empire is often referred to as the “Turkish Ottoman Empire,” and the term “Turk” continues to evoke the idea of a historical ruler. The notion that “the Turk is the enemy of the Greek” remains widespread in Greek society.

Against this backdrop, Greece’s longstanding discriminatory practices toward the Turkish minority in Western Thrace reflect a historical continuity in exclusionary and assimilationist policies. These practices largely align with prevailing societal views in Greece and are unlikely to change in the near future.

Given this deep-rooted and obsessive hostility, any violations of the treaty rights of the Turkish minority in Western Thrace must be openly opposed and publicly documented through diplomatic channels. Türkiye, as a principal party to the Lausanne Peace Treaty, must continue to contest these violations and prevent Greece from normalizing discriminatory practices against the minority.