{"id":38326,"date":"2025-11-03T04:34:11","date_gmt":"2025-11-03T04:34:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/lv\/38326\/"},"modified":"2025-11-03T04:34:11","modified_gmt":"2025-11-03T04:34:11","slug":"ka-ideologija-caur-starptautiskajam-tiesibam-tiek-uzspiesta-valstim-un-tautam","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/lv\/38326\/","title":{"rendered":"K\u0101 ideolo\u0123ija caur starptautiskaj\u0101m ties\u012bb\u0101m tiek uzspiesta valst\u012bm un taut\u0101m"},"content":{"rendered":"

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\n Baiba Rudevska \u00b7 03.11.2025. \u00b7 Koment\u0101ri (0)<\/a><\/p>\n

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2016. gad\u0101 \u2013 t\u0101tad v\u0113l pirms devi\u0146iem gadiem \u2013 pieteicos dal\u012bbai Latvijas Universit\u0101tes Juridisk\u0101s fakult\u0101tes sestaj\u0101 starptautiskaj\u0101 zin\u0101tniskaj\u0101 konferenc\u0113 \u201cKonstitucion\u0101l\u0101s v\u0113rt\u012bbas m\u016bsdienu tiesiskaj\u0101 telp\u0101\u201d. T\u0101 pa\u0161a gada pavasar\u012b bija uzvirmojis pirmais kaisl\u012bbu vilnis ap Stambulas konvenciju[1]<\/a>\u00a0un Latvijas iesp\u0113jamo pievieno\u0161anos tai, un tie\u0161i tobr\u012bd var\u0113ja \u013coti skaidri saskat\u012bt da\u017e\u0101das, visai agres\u012bvas manipul\u0101cijas ar ties\u012bbu j\u0113dzieniem un kategorij\u0101m nol\u016bk\u0101 izdar\u012bt spiedienu uz m\u016bsu valsti, lai t\u0101 parakst\u012btu un ratific\u0113tu \u0161o ideolo\u0123iski b\u012bstamo dokumentu.<\/p>\n<\/p>\n

Man\u012b p\u0113k\u0161\u0146i rad\u0101s interese un v\u0113l\u0113\u0161an\u0101s pap\u0113t\u012bt, k\u0101 da\u017e\u0101das ideolo\u0123iskas nost\u0101dnes m\u016bsdienu apst\u0101k\u013cos tiek uzspiestas un \u201ciebarotas\u201d valst\u012bm un sabiedr\u012bb\u0101m (visbie\u017e\u0101k caur cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu aizsardz\u012bbas meh\u0101nismiem) \u2013 t\u0101, lai t\u0101s \u0161\u012bs nost\u0101dnes pie\u0146emtu k\u0101 ac\u012bmredzamas un akt\u012bvi ieviestu dz\u012bv\u0113. \u0160is \u013coti pla\u0161ais un fundament\u0101lais temats b\u016btu veselas gr\u0101matas v\u0113rts, t\u0101d\u0113\u013c izv\u0113l\u0113jos apl\u016bkot to tikai visp\u0101r\u0113jo principu l\u012bmen\u012b un k\u0101 savas uzst\u0101\u0161an\u0101s un public\u0113jam\u0101 raksta tematu izv\u0113l\u0113jos \u0161\u0101du: \u201cStarptautisko ties\u012bbu izmanto\u0161ana ideolo\u0123isko postul\u0101tu ievie\u0161anai valstu konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101s sist\u0113m\u0101s\u201d. Lai var\u0113tu tie\u0161\u0101m koncentr\u0113ties uz j\u0113dzieniem, principiem un kopsakar\u012bb\u0101m, centos tur\u0113ties iesp\u0113jami t\u0101l\u0101k no vis\u0101m aktu\u0101laj\u0101m pretrun\u0101m un veidot tekstu tik abstraktu, cik vien iesp\u0113jams.<\/p>\n

Konferences organiz\u0113t\u0101ji \u0161o manu rakstu atteic\u0101s public\u0113t, jo divi no trijiem anon\u012bmajiem recenzentiem uzskat\u012bja to par \u201czin\u0101tniski nepamatotu\u201d un \u201cm\u016bsdienu cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu izpratnei neatbilsto\u0161u\u201d. Atteikuma galvenais iemesls bija formul\u0113ts \u0161\u0101di: \u201cRaksta ideolo\u0123iskie pamati neatbilst Satversmes 89. pant\u0101 paredz\u0113tajiem pien\u0101kumiem atz\u012bt un iev\u0113rot cilv\u0113ka pamatties\u012bbas, tostarp ar\u012b no Latvijas starptautiskaj\u0101m ties\u012bb\u0101m izrieto\u0161\u0101s cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas, k\u0101 ar\u012b Latvij\u0101 past\u0101vo\u0161o demokr\u0101tiskas tiesiskas valsts un cilv\u0113ka pamatties\u012bbu izpratni.\u201d<\/p>\n

T\u0101tad, ja \u013coti \u012bsi rezum\u0113 recenzentu iebildumus, tie galvenok\u0101rt balst\u012bj\u0101s vi\u0146u ideolo\u0123iski pamatot\u0101 nepiekri\u0161an\u0101 rakst\u0101 paustaj\u0101m idej\u0101m; t\u0101s izr\u0101d\u012bj\u0101s p\u0101r\u0101k \u201cnepareizas\u201d un postpadomju Latvijas juridisk\u0101 \u201cmeinstr\u012bma\u201d nost\u0101jai neatbilsto\u0161as. Man pa\u0161ai tas bija vienk\u0101r\u0161i t\u0101ds nepat\u012bkams, bet kuriozs atgad\u012bjums, kur\u0161 manu likteni nek\u0101di neietekm\u0113ja \u2013 ta\u010du padom\u0101sim par tiem juristiem, kuri dz\u012bvo Latvij\u0101, pelna tur savu dieni\u0161\u0137o maizi un gribot negribot ir spiesti klus\u0113t, lai ar \u201cneat\u013cautiem\u201d viedok\u013ciem neuzk\u0101ptu k\u0101dam uz var\u017eac\u012bm\u2026<\/p>\n

\u0160obr\u012bd, kad Saeim\u0101, pres\u0113 un soci\u0101lajos t\u012bklos ir atkal uzplaiksn\u012bjusi a\u017eiot\u0101\u017ea Stambulas konvencijas sakar\u0101 \u2013 \u0161oreiz v\u0113l ska\u013c\u0101ka un agres\u012bv\u0101ka, un ar daudz liel\u0101ku hist\u0113rijas piedevu, sal\u012bdzinot ar 2016. gadu \u2013, atcer\u0113jos par \u0161o rakstu un nol\u0113mu nopublic\u0113t to port\u0101l\u0101\u00a0Telos, aktualiz\u0113jot to un ievie\u0161ot da\u017eus uzlabojumus.<\/p>\n

\u0160aj\u0101 rakst\u0101 vispirms noskaidrosim, kas visp\u0101r ir \u201cideolo\u0123ija\u201d, jo tikai tad var\u0113s t\u0101l\u0101k run\u0101t par ideolo\u0123iz\u0113t\u0101m ties\u012bbu norm\u0101m. P\u0113c tam paraudz\u012bsimies uz to, k\u0101d\u0113\u013c tie\u0161i starptautisko ties\u012bbu nozare ir vislab\u0101k piem\u0113rota ideolo\u0123isku postul\u0101tu iestr\u0101dei. Tad noskaidrosim, k\u0101 ideolo\u0123iz\u0113ta ties\u012bbu norma caur manipul\u0101ciju ar j\u0113dzieniem un to izpratni var iek\u013c\u016bt starptautisk\u0101 l\u012bgum\u0101. Visbeidzot piev\u0113rs\u012bsim uzman\u012bbu tam, ar k\u0101d\u0101m metod\u0113m ideolo\u0123iz\u0113ta starptautisko ties\u012bbu norma var non\u0101kt l\u012bdz valstu konstit\u016bcij\u0101m un t\u0101s ietekm\u0113t.<\/p>\n

Kas ir zin\u0101tne un kas ir ideolo\u0123ija\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n

Ja tagad m\u0113\u0123in\u0101sim saprast \u201cideolo\u0123ijas\u201d j\u0113dzienu, mekl\u0113jot attiec\u012bg\u0101 termina defin\u012bciju v\u0101rdn\u012bc\u0101s un filozofu un sociologu darbos, rezult\u0101ts m\u016bs diez vai apmierin\u0101s. S\u0101ksim ar to, ka termins \u201cideolo\u0123ija\u201d ir viens no tiem v\u0101rdiem, kuriem m\u0113s varam noskaidrot konkr\u0113tu autoru. To izgudroja un pirmoreiz lietoja (1796. gad\u0101) fran\u010du politi\u0137is un Apgaism\u012bbas laikmeta filozofs Antu\u0101ns Destits de Tras\u012b (Antoine Destutt de Tracy), defin\u0113jot to k\u0101 \u201czin\u0101tni par idej\u0101m\u201d. No vi\u0146a pa\u0161a skaidrojuma gan var saprast, ka ar \u0161o terminu vi\u0146\u0161 apz\u012bm\u0113ja kaut ko vid\u0113ju starp lo\u0123iku, psiholo\u0123iju un epistemolo\u0123iju, vai \u0161o triju discipl\u012bnu kombin\u0101ciju.[2]<\/a>\u00a0T\u0101tad pa\u0161\u0101 s\u0101kum\u0101 \u201cideolo\u0123ija\u201d tika saprasta k\u0101 zin\u0101tnes nozare, l\u012bdz\u012bgi p\u0101r\u0113jiem l\u012bdz\u012bgi skano\u0161iem terminiem, kas beidzas ar izska\u0146u\u00a0\u201c-lo\u0123ija\u201d.<\/p>\n

Ta\u010du dr\u012bz vien \u0161is v\u0101rds savu pirmatn\u0113jo noz\u012bmi zaud\u0113ja un s\u0101ka apz\u012bm\u0113t ne vairs\u00a0zin\u0101tni, bet gan vienu no t\u0101s\u00a0izp\u0113tes objektiem, t. i., objekt\u012bvu soci\u0101lu fenomenu. Piem\u0113ram, kan\u0101die\u0161u sociologs G\u012b Ro\u0161\u0113 (Guy Rocher) defin\u0113ja ideolo\u0123iju k\u0101 \u201cideju un spriedumu sist\u0113mu, kas ir skaidra un liel\u0101koties organiz\u0113ta, kas noder, lai izskaidrotu k\u0101das grupas vai sabiedr\u012bbas strukt\u016bras st\u0101vokli, un kas, liel\u0101 m\u0113r\u0101 iedvesmojoties no v\u0113rt\u012bb\u0101m,\u00a0pied\u0101v\u0101 \u0161\u012bs grupas vai strukt\u016bras v\u0113sturiskajai r\u012bc\u012bbai prec\u012bzu orient\u0101ciju\u201d.[3]<\/a>\u00a0Cits sociologs, franc\u016bzis \u017dans Be\u0161lers (Jean Baechler), pied\u0101v\u0101ja daudz sare\u017e\u0123\u012bt\u0101ku un izv\u0113rst\u0101ku ideolo\u0123ijas defin\u012bciju; vi\u0146apr\u0101t, tas ir\u00a0diskursa veids, caur kuru k\u0101da cilv\u0113ciska kaisl\u012bba cen\u0161as realiz\u0113t noteiktas v\u0113rt\u012bbas, \u012bstenojot varu sabiedr\u012bb\u0101. \u017d. Be\u0161lers cita starp\u0101 uzsv\u0113ra, ka ideolo\u0123ijas b\u016bt\u012bba ir atrodama\u00a0satur\u0101, nevis\u00a0saturo\u0161aj\u0101 sist\u0113m\u0101; t\u0101tad nav t\u0101da sabiedriski politisk\u0101 diskursa\u00a0\u017eanra\u00a0jeb\u00a0formas, kuru var\u0113tu raksturot k\u0101 \u201cideolo\u0123isku\u201d.[4]<\/a>\u00a0Ideolo\u0123isku diskursu un ideolo\u0123iskas t\u0113mas varam atrast gan literat\u016br\u0101 un m\u0101ksl\u0101, gan izgl\u012bt\u012bbas programmu satur\u0101 un veid\u0101, k\u0101 tas tiek pasniegts, gan politi\u0137u run\u0101s, gan likumu tekstos un tiesu spriedumos.<\/p>\n

Man tom\u0113r \u0161\u012bs \u201cideolo\u0123ijas\u201d j\u0113dziena defin\u012bcijas \u0161\u0137iet p\u0101r\u0101k visp\u0101r\u012bgas un izpl\u016bdu\u0161as. Da\u017ereiz, lai konkretiz\u0113tu k\u0101du j\u0113dzienu un atvieglotu t\u0101 izpratni, ir ieteicams pielietot\u00a0via negationis\u00a0(\u201cnolieguma ce\u013cu\u201d \u2013 lat\u012b\u0146u val.), proti, atrast \u0161\u0101 j\u0113dziena\u00a0pretstatu\u00a0un izmantot to k\u0101 atskaites un sal\u012bdzin\u0101juma punktu. Paturot pr\u0101t\u0101 nupat min\u0113t\u0101s G. Ro\u0161\u0113 un \u017d. Be\u0161lera defin\u012bcijas un paraugoties uz \u201cideolo\u0123ijas\u201d j\u0113dziena lieto\u0161anu m\u016bsdienu sabiedriski politiskaj\u0101 diskurs\u0101, var konstat\u0113t, ka tas visbie\u017e\u0101k tiek pretstat\u012bts\u00a0zin\u0101tnes\u00a0j\u0113dzienam (spilgt\u0101kie \u0161\u0101da pretnostat\u012bjuma piem\u0113ri m\u016bsdien\u0101s ir debates par klimata p\u0101rmai\u0146u antropog\u0113no raksturu un par \u201csoci\u0101l\u0101s dzimtes\u201d (gender\u00a0\u2013 ang\u013cu val.) j\u0113dzienu).[5]<\/a><\/p>\n

Bet kas ir \u201czin\u0101tne\u201d? M\u016bsdien\u0101s visas izp\u0113tes nozares m\u0113dz iedal\u012bt \u201ccietaj\u0101\u201d zin\u0101tn\u0113 (ang\u013cu valod\u0101\u00a0hard science) un\u00a0\u201cm\u012bkstaj\u0101\u201d\u00a0zin\u0101tn\u0113 (soft science). Pie pirm\u0101s kategorijas pieder, pirmk\u0101rt,\u00a0form\u0101l\u0101s\u00a0zin\u0101tnes, kas oper\u0113 ar\u00a0abstrakt\u0101m\u00a0form\u0101l\u0101m sist\u0113m\u0101m, izrietinot teor\u0113mas no aksiom\u0101m un sl\u0113dzienus no premis\u0101m (lo\u0123ika, matem\u0101tika, teor\u0113tisk\u0101 valodniec\u012bba, sp\u0113\u013cu teorija u. tml.), un, otrk\u0101rt, dabaszin\u0101tnes jeb emp\u012brisk\u0101s zin\u0101tnes, kas p\u0113ta, izskaidro un prognoz\u0113 dabisk\u0101s par\u0101d\u012bbas caur nov\u0113rojumiem un eksperimentiem (fizika, astronomija, \u0137\u012bmija, biolo\u0123ija, \u0123eolo\u0123ija u. tml.). Savuk\u0101rt pie otr\u0101s \u2013 \u201cm\u012bkst\u0101s\u201d \u2013 zin\u0101tnes kategorijas pieder, pirmk\u0101rt, soci\u0101l\u0101s zin\u0101tnes, kas p\u0113ta da\u017e\u0101das cilv\u0113ku sabiedr\u012bbas un taj\u0101s notieko\u0161os procesus (sociolo\u0123ija, politisk\u0101 v\u0113sture, politisk\u0101 \u0123eogr\u0101fija, politolo\u0123ija, ekonomika, vad\u012bbas zin\u0101tne, psiholo\u0123ija u. tml.), un, otrk\u0101rt,\u00a0humanit\u0101r\u0101s\u00a0zin\u0101tnes, kas analiz\u0113 un interpret\u0113 noteiktus cilv\u0113ka gara darb\u012bbas aug\u013cus (filozofijas v\u0113sture, m\u0101kslas v\u0113sture, filolo\u0123ija u. tml.).<\/p>\n

Daudzas konkr\u0113tas zin\u0101t\u0146u discipl\u012bnas atbilst divu kategoriju paz\u012bm\u0113m un t\u0101d\u0113\u013c ir liekamas uz robe\u017eas starp t\u0101m. Piem\u0113ram, v\u0113sturi parasti ierindo pie soci\u0101laj\u0101m zin\u0101tn\u0113m, ta\u010du da\u017eas v\u0113stures apak\u0161discipl\u012bnas (paleogr\u0101fija, epigr\u0101fika, numism\u0101tika u. tml.) ir dr\u012bz\u0101k uzskat\u0101mas par humanit\u0101r\u0101m; ar\u012b analiz\u0113jot senaj\u0101s hronik\u0101s min\u0113tos faktus, v\u0113sturniekam bie\u017ei vien ir j\u0101dara filologa darbs. Ar\u012b ekonomiku kopum\u0101 klasific\u0113 k\u0101 soci\u0101lo zin\u0101tni, ta\u010du taj\u0101 (atkar\u012bb\u0101 no konkr\u0113t\u0101s ekonomikas skolas) ir svar\u012bga noz\u012bme gan matem\u0101tiskiem skait\u013cojumiem, gan lo\u0123iskai dedukcijai no cilv\u0113ka r\u012bc\u012bbas aksiom\u0101m, un tas jau pieder pie form\u0101lo zin\u0101t\u0146u \u201clauci\u0146a\u201d.<\/p>\n

Svar\u012bgi ir tas, ka vis\u0101m \u0161\u012bm zin\u0101t\u0146u kategorij\u0101m ir b\u016btiski da\u017e\u0101ds\u00a0epistemolo\u0123iskais standarts, t. i., stingr\u012bbas un precizit\u0101tes l\u012bmenis, ar k\u0101du taj\u0101s formul\u0113t\u0101s t\u0113zes tiek atz\u012btas par der\u012bg\u0101m. Form\u0101lo zin\u0101t\u0146u standarts ir visaugst\u0101kais un \u201cvisciet\u0101kais\u201d: \u0161\u012bs zin\u0101tnes darbojas apodeiktiski (no sengrie\u0137u\u00a0\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2\u00a0\u2013 \u201cpier\u0101d\u0101ms\u201d) un pied\u0101v\u0101 atbildes, kas ir lo\u0123iski pier\u0101d\u0101mas un nepiecie\u0161ami, univers\u0101li un\u00a0a priori\u00a0patiesas (t. i., bez nepiecie\u0161am\u012bbas veikt kaut k\u0101dus emp\u012briskus p\u0113t\u012bjumus).[6]<\/a>\u00a0Piem\u0113ram, ja pie\u0146emam Eikl\u012bda aksiomu sist\u0113mu par patiesu, tad taisnst\u016bra trijst\u016bra hipoten\u016bzas kvadr\u0101ts taj\u0101 nepiecie\u0161ami b\u016bs vien\u0101ds ar kate\u0161u kvadr\u0101tu summu. Dabaszin\u0101t\u0146u standarts jau ir krietni at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bgs: t\u0101 metodolo\u0123isk\u0101 stingr\u012bba pamatojas uz rezult\u0101tu\u00a0atk\u0101rtojam\u012bbu\u00a0(eksperimenta izn\u0101kumam ir j\u0101b\u016bt vien\u0101dam neatkar\u012bgi no t\u0101, kur\u0161, kur un kad to veic) un to\u00a0falsific\u0113jam\u012bbu\u00a0(zin\u0101tniskai t\u0113zei vismaz teor\u0113tiski un principi\u0101li ir j\u0101b\u016bt t\u0101dai, lai to var\u0113tu apg\u0101zt ar pret\u0113jiem pier\u0101d\u012bjumiem). Piem\u0113ram, t\u0113ze \u201cvisi gulbji ir balti\u201d atbilst \u0161im nosac\u012bjumam, jo to var falsific\u0113t, uzr\u0101dot citas kr\u0101sas gulbi.<\/p>\n

Soci\u0101lo zin\u0101t\u0146u epistemolo\u0123iskais standarts stingr\u012bbas zi\u0146\u0101 jau ir daudz, daudz zem\u0101ks, jo p\u0113t\u012bjuma priek\u0161metu vienm\u0113r ietekm\u0113 cilv\u0113ku br\u012bv\u0101 griba ar visiem t\u0101s sare\u017e\u0123\u012btajiem l\u012bklo\u010diem, katras situ\u0101cijas \u012bpa\u0161ais konteksts, pa\u0161a p\u0113tnieka subjekt\u012bv\u0101 nost\u0101ja, \u2013 un visi \u0161ie faktori padara p\u0113tnieka secin\u0101jumus par gau\u017ei relat\u012bviem. Vienk\u0101r\u0161oti sakot, soci\u0101lo zin\u0101t\u0146u p\u0113t\u012bjumiem var piem\u0113rot izteicienu \u201cNav likuma bez iz\u0146\u0113muma\u201d. J\u016bs nevarat pier\u0101d\u012bt, ka Pirm\u0101 pasaules kara c\u0113lo\u0146i bija tie\u0161i t\u0101di un ne cit\u0101di, vai k\u0101d\u0113\u013c m\u016bsdienu latvie\u0161u vair\u0101kums precas v\u0113lu, ar t\u0101du pa\u0161u precizit\u0101ti un stingr\u012bbu, k\u0101 neitronu zvaigznes masu vai paracetamola ietekmi uz m\u0101jas ka\u0137a organismu. Visbeidzot, humanit\u0101ro zin\u0101t\u0146u epistemolo\u0123iskais standarts ir viszem\u0101kais, jo \u0161eit piem\u0113rojamais krit\u0113rijs ir \u2013 cik piln\u012bgi, p\u0101rliecino\u0161i un struktur\u0113ti p\u0113tnieks ir pratis pamatot savu personisko viedokli. Analiz\u0113jot J\u0101\u0146a Poruka\u00a0Kauju pie Knipskas\u00a0vai Ja\u0146a Rozent\u0101la\u00a0No bazn\u012bcas, autoru nodomus nevar ne apr\u0113\u0137in\u0101t ar formul\u0101m, ne noskaidrot ar m\u0113rinstrumentiem, nedz ar\u012b notest\u0113t laboratorij\u0101.<\/p>\n

Iev\u0113rojot visu iepriek\u0161 teikto, da\u017e\u0101d\u0101s aprind\u0101s past\u0101v da\u017e\u0101di uzskati par zin\u0101tnes robe\u017e\u0101m, t. i., par to, kur zin\u0101tne s\u0101kas un kur t\u0101 beidzas. \u0160eit \u012bpa\u0161i atg\u0101din\u0101\u0161u, ka zin\u0101tne nav vien\u012bg\u0101 izzi\u0146as forma, t\u0101 nedod atbildes uz absol\u016bti visiem jaut\u0101jumiem; \u201cnezin\u0101tnisks\u201d l\u012bdz ar to ne vienm\u0113r noz\u012bm\u0113 \u201cslikts un neder\u012bgs\u201d. Past\u0101v jaut\u0101jumi, kas p\u0113c savas dabas pieder pie filozofijas vai reli\u0123ijas, bet ne zin\u0101tnes jomas (piem\u0113ram, t\u0101ds j\u0113dziens k\u0101 \u201cnekas\u201d jeb \u201cneb\u016bt\u012bba\u201d, jo zin\u0101tne sp\u0113j p\u0113t\u012bt tikai kaut ko re\u0101li vai potenci\u0101li eso\u0161u). Par zin\u0101tnes robe\u017e\u0101m es pati esmu dzird\u0113jusi da\u017e\u0101dus viedok\u013cus. Ir cilv\u0113ki (it \u012bpa\u0161i valst\u012bs, kur domin\u0113 ang\u013cu valoda), kuri par \u201czin\u0101tni\u201d (science) sauc tikai dabaszin\u0101t\u0146u kopumu, matem\u0101tiku un lo\u0123iku uzskata nevis par atsevi\u0161\u0137\u0101m zin\u0101tn\u0113m, bet par izzi\u0146as r\u012bkiem, bet \u201cm\u012bkst\u0101s\u201d zin\u0101tnes atst\u0101j \u0101rpus\u0113 (k\u0101 m\u0113dz teikt mans kaimi\u0146\u0161, fizikas profesors: \u201cT\u0101 nav zin\u0101tne, tas ir tikai viedoklis!\u201d). Citi atz\u012bst dabaszin\u0101t\u0146u un soci\u0101lo zin\u0101t\u0146u zin\u0101tnisko raksturu, bet atmet gan form\u0101l\u0101s, gan humanit\u0101r\u0101s zin\u0101tnes. \u0160eit viss ir atkar\u012bgs no konkr\u0113t\u0101 run\u0101t\u0101ja redzes le\u0146\u0137a un no t\u0101, k\u0101du epistemolo\u0123isko standartu vi\u0146\u0161 atz\u012bst par pietiekami \u201cnopietnu\u201d.<\/p>\n

Mana attieksme pret \u201czin\u0101tnes\u201d j\u0113dziena robe\u017e\u0101m nav tik \u0161aura, jo es vienm\u0113r paturu pr\u0101t\u0101 galveno Aristotela metodolo\u0123isko principu: \u201ckatrai izzi\u0146as jomai \u2013 savs noteikt\u012bbas l\u012bmenis\u201d.[7]<\/a>\u00a0L\u012bdz ar to es pied\u0101v\u0101tu \u0161\u0101du visaptvero\u0161u \u201czin\u0101tnes\u201d defin\u012bciju: t\u0101 ir\u00a0jebk\u0101da sistem\u0101tiska darb\u012bba, kuras gait\u0101 ar piem\u0113rotiem epistemolo\u0123iskiem l\u012bdzek\u013ciem tiek izzin\u0101ts eso\u0161ais\u00a0(t. i., visas re\u0101li eso\u0161\u0101s lietas un to k\u0101rt\u012bba, kas sast\u0101v no c\u0113lo\u0146sakar\u012bb\u0101m un likumiem). \u0160is \u0101rk\u0101rt\u012bgi pla\u0161ais raksturojums ietver sev\u012b gan \u201cciet\u0101s\u201d, gan \u201cm\u012bkst\u0101s\u201d zin\u0101tnes \u2013 ieskaitot ar\u012b ties\u012bbu zin\u0101tni.<\/p>\n

Ideja pret realit\u0101ti<\/p>\n

K\u0101 redzam, jebk\u0101da veida un nozares zin\u0101tni raksturo realit\u0101tes izzin\u0101\u0161ana, t\u0101tad realit\u0101tes pie\u0146em\u0161ana t\u0101da, k\u0101da t\u0101 objekt\u012bvi ir. Citiem v\u0101rdiem sakot, zin\u0101tnieks cen\u0161as noskaidrot objekt\u012bvo paties\u012bbu neatkar\u012bgi no t\u0101, vai vi\u0146am un vi\u0146a domubiedriem t\u0101 ir subjekt\u012bvi izdev\u012bga un pat\u012bkama vai ne. Tas pats attiecas ar\u012b uz ties\u012bb\u0101m un ties\u012bbu zin\u0101tni, ja vien \u201cties\u012bbu\u201d j\u0113dzienu saprot t\u0101 klasiskaj\u0101 noz\u012bm\u0113, t. i. k\u0101 l\u012bdzekli taisn\u012bguma sasnieg\u0161anai. Klasiskaj\u0101 aristoteliskaj\u0101 izpratn\u0113 jurista loma ir noskaidrot, kas konkr\u0113taj\u0101 situ\u0101cij\u0101 ir\u00a0objekt\u012bvi\u00a0taisn\u012bgi\u00a0(jo taisn\u012bgums ir objekt\u012bvs, past\u0101vo\u0161o lietu k\u0101rt\u012bbai b\u016btiski piem\u012bto\u0161s lielums).[8]<\/a>\u00a0T\u0101tad\u00a0zin\u0101tn\u0113 realit\u0101te valda un preval\u0113 p\u0101r ideju jeb konceptu.\u00a0Uzreiz pateik\u0161u, ka tas attiecas uz vis\u0101m zin\u0101tn\u0113m \u2013 ar\u012b humanit\u0101raj\u0101m. Pirm\u0101 ilustr\u0101cija, kas man n\u0101k pr\u0101t\u0101, ir \u0161\u0101da: daudziem latvie\u0161iem pat\u012bk ang\u013cu rakstnieka \u012avlina Vo (Evelyn Waugh) rom\u0101ni, ta\u010du da\u013cu no vi\u0146iem \u0161ok\u0113 atkl\u0101sme, ka Vo bija tic\u012bgs katolis un vi\u0146a tic\u012bba bija ac\u012bmredzami ietekm\u0113jusi vi\u0146a darbus. Esmu satikusi cilv\u0113kus, kuri cent\u0101s \u0161o faktu dusm\u012bgi noliegt, jo vi\u0146u postpadomju apst\u0101k\u013cos uztur\u0113tie antikatoliskie un antikrist\u012bgie aizspriedumi konflikt\u0113ja ar realit\u0101ti un ne\u013c\u0101va to pie\u0146emt.<\/p>\n

T\u0101tad\u00a0ideolo\u0123ijas gad\u012bjum\u0101\u00a0ir otr\u0101di: tur\u00a0ideja valda un preval\u0113 p\u0101r realit\u0101ti. Manupr\u0101t, \u0161\u012b ir jebkuras ideolo\u0123ijas b\u016btiska (un nevis tikai nejau\u0161a) iez\u012bme. \u0160\u0101du skat\u012bjumu apstiprina ar\u012b fran\u010du ties\u012bbzin\u0101tnieks Gregors Pupinks (Gr\u00e9gor Puppinck), kur\u0161, asi kritiz\u0113dams m\u016bsdienu cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu ideolo\u0123iz\u0101ciju, to raksturo \u0161\u0101di: \u201cIdejas domin\u0113\u0161ana p\u0101r konkr\u0113to \u013cauj dot priek\u0161roku gribai (kas nosaka ideju) p\u0101r realit\u0101ti, un p\u0113c tam \u2013 indiv\u012bdam p\u0101r (un pret) sabiedr\u012bbu, jo griba ir individu\u0101la, turpret\u012b realit\u0101te tiek apzin\u0101ta kolekt\u012bvi\u201d.[9]<\/a><\/p>\n

T\u0101 k\u0101 idejas preval\u0113\u0161ana p\u0101r objekt\u012bvo realit\u0101ti ir viena no totalit\u0101risma b\u016btiskaj\u0101m paz\u012bm\u0113m, ir v\u0113rts ieklaus\u012bties Hannas \u0100rentes (Hannah Arendt) anal\u012bz\u0113. Vi\u0146a identific\u0113 tr\u012bs galven\u0101s ideolo\u0123ijas paz\u012bmes, kas ir savstarp\u0113ji saist\u012btas.[10]<\/a><\/p>\n

Pirmk\u0101rt, ideolo\u0123ijas krasais pretstats zin\u0101tnei par\u0101d\u0101s taj\u0101 fakt\u0101, ka ideolo\u0123ija pretend\u0113 uz absol\u016bti jebkura fakta vai fenomena gal\u012bgu un nemald\u012bgu izskaidro\u0161anu. Zin\u0101tniskai t\u0113zei ir j\u0101b\u016bt\u00a0falsific\u0113jamai, t. i., ir j\u0101b\u016bt iesp\u0113jai to apg\u0101zt, pier\u0101dot pret\u0113jo. Turpret\u012b ideolo\u0123isks postul\u0101ts ir nefalsific\u0113jams: nav iesp\u0113jams apg\u0101zt t\u0113zi, ar kuru tiek izskaidrots piln\u012bgi jebkas, neatkar\u012bgi no t\u0101, k\u0101di fakti tiek analiz\u0113ti. Piem\u0113ram, ja absol\u016bti visas soci\u0101l\u0101s par\u0101d\u012bbas, pat diametr\u0101li pret\u0113jas (kar\u0161 un miers, ekonomisk\u0101 aug\u0161upeja un ekonomisk\u0101 kr\u012bze, klimata izmai\u0146as sasil\u0161anas un atdzi\u0161anas virzien\u0101 utt.) tiek skaidrotas ar vienu un to pa\u0161u c\u0113loni \u2013 \u201crasismu\u201d, \u201cklimata p\u0101rmai\u0146\u0101m\u201d, \u201cv\u012brie\u0161u un sievie\u0161u struktur\u0101lo nevienl\u012bdz\u012bbu\u201d, \u201cbalto v\u012brie\u0161u hegemoniju\u201d u. tml., \u2013 tad z\u016bd jebk\u0101da iesp\u0113ja \u0161\u0101du skaidrojumu apg\u0101zt. J\u0101secina, ka ideolo\u0123ijas j\u0113dziens liel\u0101 m\u0113r\u0101 sakr\u012bt ar\u00a0pseidozin\u0101tnes\u00a0jeb\u00a0\u0161arlat\u0101nisma\u00a0j\u0113dzienu.<\/p>\n

Otrk\u0101rt, ideolo\u0123ija veido iek\u0161\u0113ji lo\u0123iski saskan\u012bgu (nepretrun\u012bgu) sist\u0113mu. T\u0101s pamat\u0101 eso\u0161\u0101s premisas var b\u016bt piln\u012bgi aplamas un atrautas no realit\u0101tes (piem\u0113ram, t\u0113ze par \u201cbalto heteroseksu\u0101lo v\u012brie\u0161u vair\u0101kuma sist\u0113misko vardarb\u012bbu pret sieviet\u0113m\u201d), ta\u010du t\u0101l\u0101kie secin\u0101jumi no \u0161\u012bm premis\u0101m tiek atvasin\u0101ti, pielietojot jau norm\u0101las lo\u0123iskas sprie\u0161anas pa\u0146\u0113mienus.\u00a0T\u0101tad \u0161aj\u0101 zi\u0146\u0101 \u201cideolo\u0123ija\u201d ir tie\u0161i tas, ko \u0161is v\u0101rds burtiski noz\u012bm\u0113, proti, k\u0101das\u00a0idejas lo\u0123ika.<\/p>\n

Tre\u0161k\u0101rt, ideolo\u0123ijas j\u0113dziens vienm\u0113r saist\u0101s ar\u00a0varu. K\u0101 raksta H. \u0100rente, \u201cjebkura pilnv\u0113rt\u012bga ideolo\u0123ija ir tikusi rad\u012bta, turpin\u0101ta un uzlabota k\u0101 politisks ierocis, nevis k\u0101 politiska doktr\u012bna\u201d.[11]<\/a>\u00a0Ideolo\u0123iskie postul\u0101ti vienm\u0113r tiek izmantoti k\u0101 varas \u012bsteno\u0161anas l\u012bdzeklis un t\u0101 vai cit\u0101di\u00a0uzspiesti\u00a0sabiedr\u012bbai no varas nes\u0113ju puses: vai nu ar pavisam brut\u0101lu propagandu un \u201csmadze\u0146u skalo\u0161anu\u201d, vai ar\u012b izdarot daudz maig\u0101ku, bet visaptvero\u0161u intelektu\u0101lu spiedienu.[12]<\/a>\u00a0To, k\u0101 tas notiek praks\u0113, varam vislab\u0101k saredz\u0113t un sadzird\u0113t tie\u0161i tagad, sakar\u0101 ar Saeim\u0101 izskat\u0101mo Stambulas konvencijas denons\u0113\u0161anas likumprojektu.<\/p>\n

K\u0101d\u0113\u013c starptautisk\u0101s ties\u012bbas m\u016bsdien\u0101s ir tik \u201cdraudz\u012bgas\u201d ideolo\u0123ijai<\/p>\n

Uzreiz preciz\u0113\u0161u, ka ar \u201cstarptautiskaj\u0101m ties\u012bb\u0101m\u201d es \u0161eit dom\u0101ju starptautisk\u0101s\u00a0publisk\u0101s\u00a0ties\u012bbas \u2013 t. i., normu un principu kopumu, kas regul\u0113 ties\u012bbas un pien\u0101kumus starptautisk\u0101s sabiedr\u012bbas ietvaros un kura galvenie adres\u0101ti un subjekti ir suver\u0113n\u0101s valstis.[13]<\/a>\u00a0Starptautisk\u0101s priv\u0101tties\u012bbas \u2013 ties\u012bbu nozare, kas p\u0113ta priv\u0101ttiesisk\u0101s attiec\u012bbas ar \u0101rvalsts elementu, bet pati p\u0113c savas dabas nav starptautiska, jo katrai valstij ir pa\u0161ai sava starptautisko priv\u0101tties\u012bbu normu sist\u0113ma[14]<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 ir pavisam kas cits un uz apl\u016bkojamo tematu neattiecas.<\/p>\n

L\u012bdz 1945. gadam nek\u0101da \u012bpa\u0161a starptautisko ties\u012bbu ideolo\u0123iz\u0101cija nebija v\u0113rojama, jo to materi\u0101ltiesisk\u0101s piem\u0113ro\u0161anas joma bija\u00a0\u013coti ierobe\u017eota. Klasisk\u0101s starptautisk\u0101s ties\u012bbas \u2013 t\u0101das, k\u0101das t\u0101s aprakst\u012bja un defin\u0113ja t\u0101di juridisk\u0101s domas di\u017egari k\u0101 Fransisko de Vitorija (1483\u20131546), Fransisko Suaress (1548\u20131617), Hugo Grocijs (1583\u20131645), Samu\u0113ls fon Pufendorfs (1632\u20131694), Emerihs de Vatels (1714\u20131767) un da\u017ei citi \u2013 reglament\u0113ja\u00a0starptautisk\u0101s\u00a0attiec\u012bbas\u00a0\u0161\u012bs v\u0101rdkopas tie\u0161aj\u0101 un prec\u012bzaj\u0101 noz\u012bm\u0113. To tv\u0113rum\u0101 ietilpa t\u0101di jaut\u0101jumi, k\u0101, piem\u0113ram, diplom\u0101tu un konsulu statuss, starpvalstu l\u012bgumu sl\u0113g\u0161ana un piem\u0113ro\u0161ana, starpvalstu robe\u017eu noteik\u0161ana, kara un miera jaut\u0101jumi, starptautisk\u0101 tirdzniec\u012bba un sakari u. tml. Ta\u010du p\u0113c 1945. gada starptautisko ties\u012bbu tv\u0113rums s\u0101ka b\u016btiski izplesties, iek\u013caujot sev\u012b t\u0101das sf\u0113ras k\u0101 cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas, ekonomika, vides aizsardz\u012bba\u2026 un p\u0113d\u0113jo piecdesmit gadu laik\u0101 praktiski jebkas cits.[15]<\/a>\u00a0K\u0101d\u0113\u013c t\u0101?<\/p>\n

Visskaidr\u0101ko atbildi uz \u0161o jaut\u0101jumu ir devis manis jau min\u0113tais Gregors Pupinks sav\u0101 2018. gad\u0101 izn\u0101ku\u0161aj\u0101 gr\u0101mat\u0101\u00a0Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas no savas dabas atrautam cilv\u0113kam\u00a0(Les droits de l\u2019homme d\u00e9natur\u00e9); manupr\u0101t, \u0161is darbs satur dzi\u013c\u0101ko un tr\u0101p\u012bg\u0101ko cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu jomas anal\u012bzi, kas ir public\u0113ta p\u0113d\u0113jo asto\u0146desmit gadu laik\u0101. L\u016bk, \u013coti \u012bss kopsavilkums. 1945. gad\u0101 beidz\u0101s Otrais pasaules kar\u0161 \u2013 drausm\u012bg\u0101kais un n\u0101v\u0113jo\u0161\u0101kais konflikts cilv\u0113ces v\u0113stur\u0113; nekad v\u0113l cilv\u0113ka cie\u0146a un v\u0113rt\u012bba nebija m\u012bd\u012btas k\u0101j\u0101m un ignor\u0113tas tik brut\u0101li, k\u0101 \u0161\u0101 kara gait\u0101. Kad jaunizveidot\u0101s Apvienoto N\u0101ciju Organiz\u0101cijas (ANO) ietvaros s\u0101k\u0101s sarunas par to, kas j\u0101dara, lai \u0161\u0101das \u0161ausmas nekad neatk\u0101rtotos, priek\u0161pl\u0101n\u0101 izvirz\u012bj\u0101s vair\u0101ki iev\u0113rojami dom\u0101t\u0101ji ar fran\u010du kato\u013cu filozofu \u017daku Marit\u0113nu (Jacques Maritain, 1882\u20131973) priek\u0161gal\u0101. Probl\u0113mas sakni vi\u0146i saskat\u012bja sabiedrisk\u0101s un politisk\u0101s dz\u012bves\u00a0demoraliz\u0101cij\u0101.<\/p>\n

\u0160eit j\u0101paskaidro, ka visp\u0101r\u0113jo k\u0101rt\u012bbu, kas vald\u012bja pasaul\u0113 Otr\u0101 pasaules kara s\u0101kuma br\u012bd\u012b (1939. gad\u0101) un kas bija pamaz\u0101m izveidojusies kop\u0161 16. gadsimta, raksturoja divi pamatelementi. Pirm\u0101 bija t. s.\u00a0Vestf\u0101les sist\u0113ma\u00a0(nosaukta p\u0113c 1648. gad\u0101 nosl\u0113gtajiem Vestf\u0101les miera l\u012bgumiem, ar kuriem tika izbeigts Tr\u012bsdesmit gadu kar\u0161). \u0160\u012bs sist\u0113mas st\u016brakmens bija valstu\u00a0suverenit\u0101tes\u00a0j\u0113dziens: visas neatkar\u012bg\u0101s valstis k\u0101 starptautisko ties\u012bbu subjekti ir form\u0101li savstarp\u0113ji vienl\u012bdz\u012bgas neatkar\u012bgi no to lieluma un sp\u0113ka (\u0101r\u0113j\u0101\u00a0suverenit\u0101te), un t\u0101m turkl\u0101t ir piln\u012bga vara p\u0101r saviem pavalstniekiem un galav\u0101rda ties\u012bbas visos iek\u0161\u0113jos konfliktos (iek\u0161\u0113j\u0101\u00a0suverenit\u0101te). Otrais pamatelements bija\u00a0ties\u012bbu pozit\u012bvisms. Ja klasiskaj\u0101 izpratn\u0113 ties\u012bbas vienm\u0113r ir tiku\u0161as defin\u0113tas k\u0101 instruments\u00a0taisn\u012bguma\u00a0sasnieg\u0161anai un atjauno\u0161anai, tad pozit\u012bvisms uzl\u016bko ties\u012bbas k\u0101 vienk\u0101r\u0161u tehnisku normu kopumu, kas ir izk\u0101rtots hierarhisk\u0101 sist\u0113m\u0101 un kur\u0101 katras normas sp\u0113k\u0101 esam\u012bbu nosaka t\u0101s atbilst\u012bba augst\u0101ka ranga normai. Citiem v\u0101rdiem sakot, mor\u0101les apsv\u0113rumi tiek piln\u012bb\u0101 atdal\u012bti no ties\u012bbu jomas un \u201ciznesti aiz iekav\u0101m\u201d. Saliekot kop\u0101 \u0161os divus elementus, ieg\u016bstam visai \u0161au\u0161al\u012bgu kombin\u0101ciju: ja viens traks un asi\u0146ains diktators apspie\u017e sav\u0101 pak\u013caut\u012bb\u0101 eso\u0161os cilv\u0113kus un veic pret vi\u0146iem genoc\u012bdu, tad m\u0113s varam t\u016bksto\u0161k\u0101rt nosod\u012bt vi\u0146a r\u012bc\u012bbas amor\u0101lo raksturu un ar asar\u0101m apel\u0113t pie vi\u0146a \u0113tiskaj\u0101m j\u016bt\u0101m, ta\u010du\u00a0form\u0101li juridiski\u00a0vi\u0146\u0161 neko nav p\u0101rk\u0101pis: vi\u0146\u0161 ir r\u012bkojies savas suver\u0113n\u0101s jurisdikcijas ietvaros un vi\u0146a pie\u0146emtie likumi, lai ar\u012b ir \u013coti slikti, form\u0101li ir sp\u0113k\u0101.<\/p>\n

Jau 1945. gad\u0101 bija skaidrs, ka \u0161\u0101da k\u0101rt\u012bba sav\u0101 iepriek\u0161\u0113j\u0101 veidol\u0101 vairs nevar\u0113s past\u0101v\u0113t. Pirmais solis proj\u0101m no t\u0101s bija Nirnbergas starptautisk\u0101s kara tiesas spriedumi: nacion\u0101lsoci\u0101listisk\u0101s V\u0101cijas amatpersonas tika atz\u012btas par vain\u012bg\u0101m un krimin\u0101li sod\u012btas par darb\u012bb\u0101m, kas varb\u016bt nep\u0101rk\u0101pa nevienu iek\u0161\u0113ju V\u0101cijas ties\u012bbu normu, ta\u010du bija noziedz\u012bgas saska\u0146\u0101 ar visu civiliz\u0113to n\u0101ciju atz\u012btajiem principiem. Tom\u0113r tas nebija pietiekami. Marit\u0113ns un vi\u0146a domubiedri uzskat\u012bja, ka vien\u012bgais re\u0101lais probl\u0113mas risin\u0101jums b\u016btu \u2013 no jauna \u201cmoraliz\u0113t\u201d ties\u012bbas (un valstu politiku),\u00a0p\u0101rvarot\u00a0abus iepriek\u0161 min\u0113tos l\u012bdz\u0161in\u0113j\u0101s starptautisk\u0101s k\u0101rt\u012bbas elementus. T\u0101tad, pirmk\u0101rt, p\u0101rvar\u0113t ties\u012bbu pozit\u012bvismu, atgrie\u017eoties pie klasisk\u0101s izpratnes par taisn\u012bgumu k\u0101 ties\u012bbu pamatu un par to, ka klaji amor\u0101la ties\u012bbu norma nevar b\u016bt sp\u0113k\u0101 eso\u0161a ar\u012b no form\u0101l\u0101 viedok\u013ca. Otrk\u0101rt, p\u0101rvar\u0113t suverenit\u0101ti \u2013 jeb, pareiz\u0101k sakot, t\u0101s \u013caunpr\u0101t\u012bgu izmanto\u0161anu \u2013, juridiski ierobe\u017eojot valstu r\u012bc\u012bbas br\u012bv\u012bbu attiec\u012bb\u0101 uz saviem pilso\u0146iem. T\u0101tad runa 1945. gad\u0101 bija \u2013 ne vair\u0101k un ne maz\u0101k \u2013\u00a0par\u00a0jaunas pasaules l\u012bme\u0146a\u00a0mor\u0101l\u0101s\u00a0k\u0101rt\u012bbas ievie\u0161anu, un starptautiskaj\u0101m ties\u012bb\u0101m piln\u012bgi dabiski bija j\u0101k\u013c\u016bst par galveno instrumentu \u0161\u0101 m\u0113r\u0137a sasnieg\u0161anai.[16]<\/a>\u00a0L\u016bk, t\u0101d\u0113\u013c un t\u0101d\u0101 veid\u0101 starptautisk\u0101s ties\u012bbas no vienk\u0101r\u0161as starpvalstu attiec\u012bbas reglament\u0113jo\u0161as sist\u0113mas k\u013cuva par kaut ko daudz pla\u0161\u0101ku un visaptvero\u0161\u0101ku.<\/p>\n

1948. gada 10. decembr\u012b ANO \u0122ener\u0101l\u0101 Asambleja pie\u0146\u0113ma Visp\u0101r\u0113jo Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu deklar\u0101ciju, t\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di radot\u00a0starptautisk\u0101s cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas\u00a0k\u0101 atsevi\u0161\u0137u starptautisko ties\u012bbu apak\u0161nozari. V\u0113l\u0101k tika izstr\u0101d\u0101ti jau prec\u012bz\u0101ki un konkr\u0113t\u0101ki cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu dokumenti, piem\u0113ram, Eiropas Padomes ietvaros pie\u0146emt\u0101 Eiropas Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu un pamatbr\u012bv\u012bbu aizsardz\u012bbas konvencija (atkl\u0101ta parakst\u012b\u0161anai 1950. gada 4. septembr\u012b).<\/p>\n

Tom\u0113r vis\u0101 \u0161aj\u0101 proces\u0101, diem\u017e\u0113l, izr\u0101d\u012bj\u0101s apsl\u0113pts pamat\u012bgs slazds, un visa starptautisk\u0101 sabiedr\u012bba taj\u0101 galu gal\u0101 iekrita. Atcer\u0113simies:\u00a0Visp\u0101r\u0113jo Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu deklar\u0101ciju un Eiropas Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu konvenciju izstr\u0101d\u0101ja v\u0113l \u201cvec\u0101 kaluma\u201d cilv\u0113ki ar klasisku izpratni par cilv\u0113ka iedabu, kas bija stingri iesak\u0146oti Rietumu krist\u012bg\u0101s domas trad\u012bcij\u0101. Pats Marit\u0113ns bija \u013coti reli\u0123iozs katolis un\u00a0person\u0101lisma\u00a0filozofijas p\u0101rst\u0101vis; vi\u0146\u0161 uzl\u016bkoja cilv\u0113ku nevis k\u0101 kailu indiv\u012bdu, bet k\u0101\u00a0personu\u00a0ar daudz\u0101m \u0161\u0137autn\u0113m, kuras veido vi\u0146a attiec\u012bbas ar sev tuvajiem cilv\u0113kiem un ar sabiedr\u012bbu.[17]<\/a>\u00a0Ta\u010du sekojo\u0161ajos gadu desmitos Eirop\u0101 un pasaul\u0113 notika nopietnas p\u0101rmai\u0146as, vec\u0101s krist\u012bg\u0101s un klasisk\u0101s trad\u012bcijas tika aizslauc\u012btas m\u0113slain\u0113, un par valstu un sabiedr\u012bbu eli\u0161u domin\u0113jo\u0161o ideolo\u0123iju k\u013cuva marksisms t\u0101 da\u017e\u0101d\u0101s izpausm\u0113s. Non\u0101kot \u0161\u0101da veida politi\u0137u, ier\u0113d\u0146u un tiesne\u0161u rok\u0101s,\u00a0daudzi starptautiskie cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu dokumenti no labdab\u012bgiem cilv\u0113ka aizsardz\u012bbas r\u012bkiem k\u013cuva par b\u012bstamiem ideolo\u0123isk\u0101s c\u012b\u0146as iero\u010diem.<\/p>\n

Vienlaikus neaizmirs\u012bsim ar\u012b to, ka Aukst\u0101 kara laik\u0101 cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas propagandas un diversijas nol\u016bkos akt\u012bvi izmantoja Padomju Savien\u012bba un t\u0101s vasa\u013ci. PSRS k\u0101 viena no pasaules lielvar\u0101m\u00a0\u2013\u00a0ANO Dro\u0161\u012bbas Padomes past\u0101v\u012bg\u0101 locekle \u2013 un t\u0101s satel\u012btvalstis ar saviem \u201cekspertiem\u201d piedal\u012bj\u0101s vair\u0101ku ANO konvenciju (daudzpus\u0113jo l\u012bgumu) izstr\u0101d\u0113 cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu jom\u0101. Rezult\u0101t\u0101 \u0161ajos l\u012bgumos tika iestr\u0101d\u0101ti komunisma ideologiem izdev\u012bgi elementi. Diem\u017e\u0113l nek\u0101da attiec\u012bgo konvenciju rev\u012bzija p\u0113c Aukst\u0101 kara beig\u0101m nav notikusi un t\u0101s joproj\u0101m ir sp\u0113k\u0101 taj\u0101 redakcij\u0101, pie kuras bija piestr\u0101d\u0101ju\u0161i padomju a\u0123enti.[18]<\/a><\/p>\n

G. Pupinks sav\u0101 gr\u0101mat\u0101 \u013coti skaidri un izsme\u013co\u0161i izskaidro ar\u012b to, k\u0101d\u0113\u013c starptautiskie cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu dokumenti un tos piem\u0113rojo\u0161o instit\u016bciju skaidrojumi (piem\u0113ram, Eiropas Cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu tiesas spriedumi, kas attiec\u012bgaj\u0101m dal\u012bbvalst\u012bm ir form\u0101li saisto\u0161i) ir \u012bpa\u0161i piem\u0113roti ideolo\u0123isku postul\u0101tu uzspie\u0161anai valst\u012bm. Pirmk\u0101rt, pamatc\u0113lonis ir\u00a0antropolo\u0123iska revol\u016bcija, kas ir novedusi pie radik\u0101las \u201ccilv\u0113ka\u201d j\u0113dziena izpratnes mai\u0146as. K\u0101 tikko teicu, m\u016bsdienu starptautisk\u0101s cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu aizsardz\u012bbas sist\u0113mas pirms\u0101kumos ar \u201ccilv\u0113ku\u201d tika saprasta persona\u00a0(ar konkr\u0113t\u0101m dabisk\u0101m cilv\u0113cisk\u0101m \u012bpa\u0161\u012bb\u0101m, kas izpau\u017eas sabiedr\u012bb\u0101), ta\u010du tagad \u201ccilv\u0113ks\u201d ir\u00a0indiv\u012bds, kur\u0161 tiek uzl\u016bkots k\u0101 izol\u0113ta vien\u012bba un kuru defin\u0113 tikai vi\u0146\u0161 pats. Otrk\u0101rt, ja s\u0101kotn\u0113jais cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu m\u0113r\u0137is bija aizsarg\u0101t cilv\u0113ku pret valsts patva\u013cu un apspie\u0161anu, tad\u00a0\u0161odien t\u0101s tiek uztvertas k\u0101 pozit\u012bvs l\u012bdzeklis indiv\u012bda dz\u012bves apst\u0101k\u013cu uzlabo\u0161anai\u00a0un vi\u0146a atbr\u012bvo\u0161anai no visiem soci\u0101lajiem valgiem, \u2013 un valsts k\u013c\u016bst par indiv\u012bda atbr\u012bvot\u0101ju un aizg\u0101dni.[19]<\/a>\u00a0T\u0101tad no c\u0113la aizst\u0101vja pret varm\u0101k\u0101m cilv\u0113kties\u012bbas ir k\u013cuvu\u0161as, cita starp\u0101, par politisk\u0101s un ideolo\u0123isk\u0101s c\u012b\u0146as ieroci.<\/p>\n

Ideolo\u0123ijas m\u0113r\u0137is \u2013 starptautisk\u0101 konsensa il\u016bzijas pan\u0101k\u0161ana un ievie\u0161ana nacion\u0101lo valstu ties\u012bbu sist\u0113m\u0101s<\/p>\n

Starptautiskaj\u0101s ties\u012bb\u0101s parasti izdala piecus so\u013cus starptautisk\u0101 l\u012bguma nosl\u0113g\u0161an\u0101, no kuriem pirmais ir\u00a0sarunu ve\u0161ana. Sarunu nosl\u0113gum\u0101 l\u012bguma tekstam ir j\u0101b\u016bt t\u0101dam, lai tam piekristu visas iesaist\u012bt\u0101s valstis,[20]<\/a>\u00a0proti, ir j\u0101b\u016bt pan\u0101ktam valstu konsensam jeb vienpr\u0101t\u012bbai par l\u012bguma tekstu un taj\u0101 lietotaj\u0101m defin\u012bcij\u0101m un j\u0113dzieniem.[21]<\/a>\u00a0Ideolo\u0123isko postul\u0101tu virz\u012bt\u0101ji visbie\u017e\u0101k r\u012bkojas p\u0113c vienas sh\u0113mas. Ideolo\u0123iskais postul\u0101ts s\u0101kotn\u0113ji tiek apspriests un aizst\u0101v\u0113ts starptautisk\u0101s konferenc\u0113s, kur to virza starptautisko organiz\u0101ciju eksperti vai atsevi\u0161\u0137i konferences deleg\u0101ti. Ja p\u0101r\u0113jie konferences deleg\u0101ti nav pietieko\u0161i modri un \u0161\u0101dus centienus nepamana, tas t\u0101l\u0101k var tikt iestr\u0101d\u0101ts da\u017e\u0101d\u0101s nesaisto\u0161\u0101s deklar\u0101cij\u0101s un rekomend\u0101cij\u0101s, lai rad\u012btu\u00a0valstu konsensa jeb vienpr\u0101t\u012bbas il\u016bziju. P\u0113c tam ideolo\u0123iskais postul\u0101ts var tikt iestr\u0101d\u0101ts nu jau saisto\u0161os starptautiskos l\u012bgumos (cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu jom\u0101). K\u0101 vienu konkr\u0113tu \u0161\u012bs par\u0101d\u012bbas piem\u0113ru \u012bsi apl\u016bko\u0161u j\u0113dziena \u201csoci\u0101lais dzimums\u201d; \u201csoci\u0101l\u0101 dzimte\u201d jeb \u201cgender\u201d[22]<\/a>\u00a0(ang\u013cu valod\u0101)[23]<\/a>\u00a0iestr\u0101des m\u0113\u0123in\u0101jumus starptautisko ties\u012bbu norm\u0101s.<\/p>\n

Laik\u0101 l\u012bdz ceturtajai Pasaules Sievie\u0161u konferencei, kas notika 1995. gad\u0101 Pekin\u0101 (turpm\u0101k \u2013 Pekinas Konference), j\u0113dziens \u201cgender\u201d starptautiskos dokumentos valstu starp\u0101 tika saprasts k\u0101 sinon\u012bms v\u0101rdiem \u201csieviete\u201d un\/vai \u201cdzimums\u201d (ang\u013cu valod\u0101 \u201csex\u201d).[24]<\/a>\u00a0Konferences sarunu laik\u0101 no radik\u0101lo feministu puses notika centieni Konferences nosl\u0113guma dokument\u0101 \u2013 Pekinas Deklar\u0101cij\u0101 un R\u012bc\u012bbas platform\u0101[25]<\/a>\u00a0\u2013 iestr\u0101d\u0101t j\u0113dziena \u201cgender\u201d defin\u012bciju, kas atbilstu soci\u0101li konstru\u0113to lomu izpratnei (jeb soci\u0101lajai teorijai). Ta\u010du tas neizdev\u0101s vair\u0101ku iemeslu d\u0113\u013c. Pirmk\u0101rt, Hondurasas p\u0101rst\u0101ve bija pirms tam iepazinusies ar radik\u0101l\u0101 feminisma filozofes D\u017e\u016bditas Batleres (Judith Butler) 1990. gad\u0101 public\u0113to gr\u0101matu\u00a0Dzimtes nemieri: feminisms un identit\u0101tes apv\u0113r\u0161ana\u00a0(Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of\u00a0Identity), kur\u0101 Batlere bija skaidri postul\u0113jusi at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bbas starp biolo\u0123isko dzimumu un \u201cgender\u201d.[26]<\/a>\u00a0Turkl\u0101t viens no deleg\u0101tiem konferences laik\u0101 izplat\u012bja tekstus, kurus Amerikas universit\u0101t\u0113s bija izmantoju\u0161as radik\u0101l\u0101s feministes.[27]<\/a>\u00a0Lai atrisin\u0101tu \u0161o domstarp\u012bbu, apm\u0113ram se\u0161desmit valstu (ieskaitot ar\u012b Sv\u0113to Kr\u0113slu) deleg\u0101ti nol\u0113ma izstr\u0101d\u0101t savu j\u0113dziena \u201cgender\u201d defin\u012bciju. Rezult\u0101t\u0101 Pekinas R\u012bc\u012bbas programmai tika pievienots Ceturtais pielikums,[28]<\/a>\u00a0kur\u0101 valstis konkretiz\u0113ja, ka j\u0113dziens \u201cgender\u201d Pekinas Konferences dokumentos b\u016bs saprotams k\u0101 sinon\u012bms v\u0101rdiem \u201csieviete\u201d un \u201cdzimums\u201d.<\/p>\n

1998. gada Romas Starptautisk\u0101s Krimin\u0101ltiesas Stat\u016btos[29]<\/a>\u00a0(parasti saukti vienk\u0101r\u0161i par \u201cRomas Stat\u016btiem\u201d) pirmo reizi tika iek\u013cauta j\u0113dziena \u201cgender\u201d[30]<\/a>\u00a0defin\u012bcija. Saska\u0146\u0101 ar Romas Stat\u016btu 7. panta tre\u0161o da\u013cu, \u201c\u0160o Stat\u016btu m\u0113r\u0137iem termins \u201cdzimums\u201d (\u201cgender\u201d \u2013\u00a0ang\u013cu val.) ir attiecin\u0101ms uz diviem dzimumiem, v\u012brie\u0161u un sievie\u0161u, kas sastopami sabiedr\u012bb\u0101. Termins \u201cdzimums\u201d (\u201cgender\u201d \u2013\u00a0ang\u013cu val.) neietver sev\u012b nevienu citu noz\u012bmi, k\u0101 vien iepriek\u0161 defin\u0113to\u201d. \u0160\u012b defin\u012bcija\u00a0j\u0113dzienu \u201cgender\u201d sasaista ar sievie\u0161u un v\u012brie\u0161u biolo\u0123isko dzimumu (p\u0101rst\u0101vot \u201cgender\u201d biolo\u0123isko teoriju[31]<\/a>),[32]<\/a>\u00a0k\u0101 ar\u012b nosprau\u017e t\u0101 interpret\u0101cijas robe\u017eas (\u201c[..] neietver sev\u012b nevienu citu noz\u012bmi, k\u0101 vien iepriek\u0161 defin\u0113to\u201d).\u00a0\u0160\u0101di tas pagaid\u0101m tiek izprasts starptautiskaj\u0101s ties\u012bb\u0101s, kur par to tie\u0161\u0101m ir ticis pan\u0101kts valstu konsenss jeb vienpr\u0101t\u012bba.<\/p>\n

Ta\u010du ties\u012bbu zin\u0101tn\u0113 un praks\u0113 p\u0113d\u0113jo gadu laik\u0101 notiek centieni \u0161aj\u0101 defin\u012bcij\u0101 biolo\u0123isk\u0101s \u201cgender\u201d teorijas viet\u0101 ielas\u012bt soci\u0101lo \u201cgender\u201d teoriju: uz p\u0113d\u0113jo it k\u0101 nor\u0101dot defin\u012bcij\u0101 lietotie v\u0101rdi \u201ckas sastopami sabiedr\u012bb\u0101\u201d un t\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di defin\u012bcija esot saprotama soci\u0101li konstru\u0113tu \u201cgender\u201d lomu gaism\u0101.[33]<\/a>\u00a0V\u0113l jo vair\u0101k, ties\u012bbu zin\u0101tn\u0113 \u0161obr\u012bd notiek diskusijas par to, ka ar\u012b termins \u201csieviete\u201d starptautiskajos l\u012bgumos nu jau esot j\u0101s\u0101k p\u0101rskat\u012bt un t\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di interpret\u0113t \u201catbilsto\u0161i m\u016bsdienu zin\u0101tnes att\u012bst\u012bbai\u201d, proti, ar \u201csievieti\u201d saprotot ar\u012b \u201ctrans-sievietes\u201d (ang\u013cu val. \u2013 \u201ctrans-women\u201d).[34]<\/a>\u00a0K\u0101 redzams, valstis vairs nevar dro\u0161i pa\u013cauties uz tiem starptautiskajiem l\u012bgumiem, kuriem pa\u0161as pievienoju\u0161\u0101s un nevar b\u016bt dro\u0161as par V\u012bnes konvencijas 31. pant\u0101 nospraustaj\u0101m starptautisko l\u012bgumu iztulko\u0161anas metod\u0113m (ja starptautiskaj\u0101 l\u012bgum\u0101 atkl\u0101tos k\u0101ds divdom\u012bgs vai neskaidrs juridiskais termins).[35]<\/a><\/p>\n

Piem\u0113ram, ANO Augstais komis\u0101rs b\u0113g\u013cu liet\u0101s sav\u0101s 2002. gada Vadl\u012bnij\u0101s par ANO Konvencijas par b\u0113g\u013ca statusu piem\u0113ro\u0161anu skaidro, ka \u201cgender\u201d esot j\u0101nodala no biolo\u0123isk\u0101 dzimuma, turkl\u0101t \u201cgender\u201d izpratne neesot statiska un visu laiku mainoties.[36]<\/a>\u00a0Tas pats sak\u0101ms par Starptautisk\u0101s Krimin\u0101ltiesas Prokurora biroja 2014. gad\u0101 izdoto \u201cPolitikas dokumentu par seksu\u0101lajiem un uz \u201cgender\u201d balst\u012btiem noziegumiem\u201d, kur\u0101 pazi\u0146ots, ka Prokurora birojs Romas Stat\u016btu 7. panta tre\u0161aj\u0101 da\u013c\u0101 eso\u0161o \u201cgender\u201d defin\u012bciju piem\u0113ros pla\u0161\u0101k un interpret\u0113s saska\u0146\u0101 ar \u201cstarptautiski atz\u012bt\u0101m cilv\u0113kties\u012bb\u0101m\u201d (atsauc\u0113s nor\u0101dot da\u017e\u0101dus nesaisto\u0161us starptautisko organiz\u0101ciju komiteju un komis\u0101ru zi\u0146ojumus, pazi\u0146ojumus un rekomend\u0101cijas, nevis starptautiskos l\u012bgumus, kuros valstis b\u016btu skaidri izteiku\u0161as gribu main\u012bt Romas Stat\u016btos ietvert\u0101 j\u0113dziena \u201cgender\u201d izpratni, to papla\u0161inot).[37]<\/a>\u00a0<\/p>\n

Citiem v\u0101rdiem sakot,\u00a0da\u017eu starptautisko organiz\u0101ciju amatpersonas patva\u013c\u012bgi (bez valstu konsensa esam\u012bbas) ielasa j\u0113dzien\u0101 \u201cgender\u201d daudz pla\u0161\u0101ku saturu, nek\u0101 par to ir vienoju\u0161\u0101s valstis starptautiskajos l\u012bgumos.<\/p>\n

Tom\u0113r j\u0113dziena \u201cgender\u201d soci\u0101l\u0101s teorijas[38]<\/a>\u00a0defin\u012bciju ir izdevies juridiski iestr\u0101d\u0101t 2011. gada 11. maij\u0101 pie\u0146emtaj\u0101 Eiropas Padomes Konvencij\u0101 par vardarb\u012bbas pret sieviet\u0113m un vardarb\u012bbas \u0123imen\u0113 nov\u0113r\u0161anu un apkaro\u0161anu (Stambulas konvencij\u0101). Saska\u0146\u0101 ar t\u0101s 3. panta c) punktu\u00a0\u201car terminu \u201csoci\u0101lais dzimums (dzimte)\u201d jeb \u201cgender\u201d tiek saprastas \u201csoci\u0101li konstru\u0113tas lomas, uzved\u012bba, nodarbo\u0161an\u0101s un \u012bpa\u0161\u012bbas, ko konkr\u0113ta sabiedr\u012bba uzskata par atbilsto\u0161\u0101m sieviet\u0113m un v\u012brie\u0161iem\u201d. Pret \u0161\u0101du defin\u012bciju Stambulas konvencijas izstr\u0101des laik\u0101 iebilda Bulg\u0101rija.[39]<\/a>\u00a0Ta\u010du tas netrauc\u0113ja Eiropas Padomei pie\u0146emt konvencijas tekstu, valst\u012bm par to nemaz nebalsojot.[40]<\/a>\u00a0Bulg\u0101rijas atbilde uz \u0161\u0101du Konvencijas tekstu v\u0113l\u0101k izpaud\u0101s Bulg\u0101rijas Konstitucion\u0101l\u0101s tiesas 2018. gada 27. j\u016blija spriedum\u0101, kur\u0101 tiesa konstat\u0113ja: Stambulas konvencijas 3. panta c) punkts (un 4. panta 3. punkts) neatbilst Bulg\u0101rijas Konstit\u016bcijai.[41]<\/a>\u00a0Un t\u0101d\u0113\u013c Bulg\u0101rija \u0161o konvenciju neratific\u0113s.[42]<\/a><\/p>\n

L\u012bdz ar to \u0161obr\u012bd da\u017e\u0101dos starptautiskajos dokumentos (un konvenciju projektos) j\u0113dzienam \u201cgender\u201d var b\u016bt vismaz piecas izpratnes:<\/p>\n

1) k\u0101 sinon\u012bms v\u0101rdiem \u201csieviete\u201d un\/vai \u201cdzimums\u201d;<\/p>\n

2) k\u0101 sieviete un v\u012brietis sabiedr\u012bbas kontekst\u0101;<\/p>\n

3) k\u0101 kultur\u0101ls aspekts, kas balst\u0101s uz sievie\u0161u un v\u012brie\u0161u biolo\u0123isko dzimumu;<\/p>\n

4) k\u0101 soci\u0101li konstru\u0113tas lomas; un<\/p>\n

5) k\u0101 nedefin\u0113ts j\u0113dziens, atst\u0101jot to piln\u012bgi atv\u0113rtu jebkurai n\u0101kotnes interpret\u0101cijai.[43]<\/a><\/p>\n

Protams, ka ties\u012bbu jom\u0101 lietotajiem terminiem ir j\u0101b\u016bt pietiekami skaidriem (to prasa ar\u012b tiesisk\u0101s pa\u013c\u0101v\u012bbas princips). Turkl\u0101t ar vienu j\u0113dzienu nav pie\u013caujams apz\u012bm\u0113t piecas vai vair\u0101kas da\u017e\u0101das realit\u0101tes, kuras turkl\u0101t v\u0113l ir atv\u0113rtas da\u017e\u0101d\u0101m interpret\u0101cij\u0101m n\u0101kotn\u0113. Tas v\u0113lreiz liek secin\u0101t, ka j\u0113dziens \u201cgender\u201d ties\u012bb\u0101s ir k\u013cuvis ideolo\u0123isks, jo ar vienu terminu cen\u0161as apz\u012bm\u0113t da\u017e\u0101das realit\u0101tes, turkl\u0101t t\u0101 iek\u0161\u0113jais saturs par sp\u012bti skaidra valstu konsensa neesam\u012bbai tiek nemit\u012bgi main\u012bts atbilsto\u0161i tam, k\u0101 to konkr\u0113taj\u0101 br\u012bd\u012b izprot starptautiskie eksperti da\u017e\u0101d\u0101s starptautiskaj\u0101s organiz\u0101cij\u0101s vai, piem\u0113ram, feminisma ties\u012bbu teor\u0113ti\u0137i.[44]<\/a>\u00a0No t\u0101 var secin\u0101t, ka\u00a0ideolo\u0123iz\u0113tas ties\u012bbu normas sev\u012b satur izpl\u016bdu\u0161us un neskaidrus j\u0113dzienus, kuru iek\u0161\u0113j\u0101s robe\u017eas pak\u0101peniski tiek papla\u0161in\u0101tas vai pat b\u016btiski main\u012btas.<\/p>\n

\u0160\u012bs izmai\u0146as, k\u0101 redz\u0113j\u0101m, parasti vispirms ierosina vai nu ar ties\u012bbu zin\u0101tnes, vai ar\u012b ar starptautisko organiz\u0101ciju amatpersonu pie\u0146emto nesaisto\u0161o dokumentu pal\u012bdz\u012bbu.<\/p>\n

T\u0101 k\u0101 starptautisko ties\u012bbu normas valst\u012bm nevar \u201cuzspiest\u201d v\u0101rda tie\u0161\u0101 un form\u0101l\u0101 noz\u012bm\u0113 (jo katrs starptautiskais l\u012bgums ir j\u0101paraksta un j\u0101ratific\u0113, t\u0101tad valstij ir skaidri j\u0101pau\u017e sava piekri\u0161ana), feminisma ties\u012bbu teor\u0113ti\u0137i t\u0101l\u0101k koncentr\u0113jas uz konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101m ties\u012bb\u0101m, lai taj\u0101s iestr\u0101d\u0101tu to, ko vi\u0146i sauc par \u201cstarptautiskajiem cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu standartiem\u201d. Feminisma ties\u012bbu teorija pied\u0101v\u0101 galvenos veidus, k\u0101dos ar \u201cgender\u201d j\u0113dzienu saist\u012bt\u0101s ties\u012bbu normas var tikt iestr\u0101d\u0101tas valstu konstit\u016bcij\u0101s:[45]<\/a><\/p>\n

1)\u00a0asimil\u0101cija\u00a0\u2013 \u0161o metodi pielieto konstit\u016bciju izstr\u0101des vai groz\u012b\u0161anas proces\u0101, asimil\u0113jot pamatties\u012bbu norm\u0101s starptautisko \u201ccilv\u0113kties\u012bbu standartu\u201d;<\/p>\n

2)\u00a0adapt\u0101cija\u00a0\u2013 t\u0101 notiek ar ties\u012bbu normu interpret\u0101cijas pal\u012bdz\u012bbu. Piem\u0113ram, no Satversmes 89. panta izriet, ka Satversmes VIII noda\u013cas (\u201cCilv\u0113ka pamatties\u012bbas\u201d) interpret\u0101cij\u0101 var tikt izmantotas ar\u012b Latvijai saisto\u0161o starptautisko l\u012bgumu normas.<\/p>\n

\u0160\u012bs metodes var pielietot vai nu likumdev\u0113js (Latvijas gad\u012bjum\u0101 \u2013 Saeima), vai likuma piem\u0113rot\u0101ji, vai Satversmes tiesa. L\u012bdz ar to preto\u0161an\u0101s \u0161\u0101du ideolo\u0123iz\u0113tu ties\u012bbu normu ien\u0101k\u0161anai konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101s sist\u0113m\u0101s var notikt ar diametr\u0101li pret\u0113j\u0101m metod\u0113m, proti:<\/p>\n

1) ar atteik\u0161anos asimil\u0113t \u0161\u0101das ideolo\u0123iz\u0113tas ties\u012bbu normas vai \u201ccilv\u0113kties\u012bbu standartus\u201d savu valstu konstit\u016bcij\u0101s\u00a0(tas ir Saeimas kompetenc\u0113); vai<\/p>\n

2) ar atteik\u0161anos ar interpret\u0101cijas pal\u012bdz\u012bbu adapt\u0113t \u0161\u0101das ideolo\u0123iz\u0113tas ties\u012bbu normas vai \u201cstandartus\u201d valsts konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101 sist\u0113m\u0101,\u00a0tas ir, neielasot Satversmes VIII noda\u013cas norm\u0101s t\u0101dus starptautiskos \u201ccilv\u0113kties\u012bbu standartus\u201d, kuriem Latvija nav skaidri piekritusi starptautisk\u0101 l\u012bguma parakst\u012b\u0161anas br\u012bd\u012b.<\/p>\n

Starptautisk\u0101s ties\u012bbas pied\u0101v\u0101 virkni pa\u0146\u0113mienu, ar k\u0101diem valstis var groz\u012bt vai papildin\u0101t jau eso\u0161o starptautisko l\u012bgumu normas, ja nu patie\u0161\u0101m ir nobriedusi vajadz\u012bba starptautisk\u0101 l\u012bmen\u012b papla\u0161in\u0101t k\u0101du cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu normu saturu (saska\u0146\u0101 ar jau min\u0113to V\u012bnes konvenciju par starptautisko l\u012bgumu ties\u012bb\u0101m). Un tikai p\u0113c tam, kad valsts ir piekritusi \u0161\u0101diem groz\u012bjumiem vai papildin\u0101jumiem, tos var tiesiski izmantot valstu konstit\u016bciju interpret\u0101cij\u0101s.<\/p>\n

L\u012bdz ar to nacion\u0101lo valstu ties\u0101m un konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101m ties\u0101m ir j\u0101p\u0101rbauda savas valsts likumdev\u0113ja griba saist\u012bt valsti ar vienu vai otru starptautisk\u0101 l\u012bguma noteikuma vai j\u0113dziena izpratni.\u00a0Tas, ka valstij ir saisto\u0161s k\u0101ds starptautisks l\u012bgums cilv\u0113kties\u012bbu jom\u0101, nenoz\u012bm\u0113 to, ka \u0161\u012b valsts ir devusi savu piekri\u0161anu \u0161\u0101d\u0101 l\u012bgum\u0101 eso\u0161o normu un j\u0113dzienu interpret\u0101cijas staip\u012b\u0161anai un pl\u016bsto\u0161ai papla\u0161in\u0101\u0161anai no starptautisko organiz\u0101ciju ekspertu, ier\u0113d\u0146u un komis\u0101ru, k\u0101 ar\u012b teoretiz\u0113jo\u0161u ties\u012bbzin\u0101tnieku puses.<\/p>\n

Nobeiguma viet\u0101 \u012bpa\u0161i uzsv\u0113r\u0161u: ideolo\u0123isku postul\u0101tu apvelt\u012b\u0161ana ar starptautisku normat\u012bvu sp\u0113ku draud non\u0101kt pretrun\u0101 ar klasiskaj\u0101m pamatties\u012bb\u0101m un suver\u0113no valstu konstitucion\u0101laj\u0101m pamatv\u0113rt\u012bb\u0101m. Valst\u012bm tom\u0113r ir iesp\u0113jas pretoties \u0161ai \u201cideolo\u0123iskajai pak\u013cau\u0161anai\u201d vair\u0101kos veidos, no kuriem pirmais ir skaidru iebildumu pau\u0161ana starptautisko l\u012bgumu izstr\u0101des proces\u0101, lai nov\u0113rstu mald\u012bga priek\u0161stata ra\u0161anos par valstu konsensu. Ja tas tom\u0113r ir noticis \u2013 valstij ir ties\u012bbas neparakst\u012bt un\/vai neratific\u0113t \u0161\u0101du l\u012bgumu, bet, ja tas politiskas k\u013c\u016bdas vai nezin\u0101\u0161anas, vai politiska spiediena d\u0113\u013c ir ticis ratific\u0113ts \u2013 to denons\u0113t jeb no t\u0101 izst\u0101ties.<\/p>\n

[1]<\/a>\u00a0Pilnais nosaukums \u2013 Eiropas Padomes Konvencija par vardarb\u012bbas pret sieviet\u0113m un vardarb\u012bbas \u0123imen\u0113 nov\u0113r\u0161anu un apkaro\u0161anu. Stambulas konvencijas autentiskie teksti ang\u013cu un fran\u010du valod\u0101s pieejami Eiropas Padomes m\u0101jas lap\u0101 p\u0113c \u0161\u012bs saites:\u00a0https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=210<\/a>, savuk\u0101rt latvie\u0161u valod\u0101s eso\u0161ais tulkojums pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/-\/council-of-europe-council-of-europe-convention-on-preventing-and-combating-violence-against-women-and-domestic-violence-cets-no-210-translations<\/a>, k\u0101 ar\u012b\u00a0www.likumi.lv<\/a>\u00a0[visas saites atsauc\u0113s ir skat\u012btas un p\u0101rbaud\u012btas 26.10.2025].<\/p>\n

[2]<\/a>\u00a0Destutt de Tracy A.,\u00a0M\u00e9moire sur la facult\u00e9 de penser, lu le 2 flor\u00e9al an 4. Gr\u0101m.: M\u00e9moires de l\u2019Institut National des Sciences et des Arts, Tome premier, Paris:\u00a0Baudouin, Thermidor An VI (1798),\u00a0 p. 324. Elektronisk\u0101 form\u0101t\u0101 pieejama \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/www.bibnum.education.fr\/sites\/default\/files\/destutt-de-tracy-texte.pdf<\/a>.<\/p>\n

[3]<\/a>\u00a0Rocher G.,\u00a0L\u2019action sociale. Tome 1 : Introduction \u00e0 la sociologie g\u00e9n\u00e9rale. Paris : Seuil, 1970, p.127.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a>\u00a0Baechler J.,\u00a0Qu\u2019est-ce que l\u2019id\u00e9ologie ?\u00a0Paris : Gallimard, 1976.<\/p>\n

[5]<\/a>\u00a0Viens piem\u0113rs no daudziem t\u016bksto\u0161iem: Smith W. J., \u201cWhen Science (and\u00a0Media) Becomes Ideology We All Lose\u201d,\u00a0First Things, 12.05.2008,\u00a0http:\/\/www.firstthings.com\/blogs\/firstthoughts\/2008\/12\/when-science-and-media-becomes-ideology-we-all-lose<\/a>.<\/p>\n

[6]<\/a>\u00a0Rudevskis J., \u201cKlasisk\u0101 re\u0101lista rokasgr\u0101mata jeb ce\u013c\u0161 uz sak\u0101rtotu dom\u0101\u0161anu\u201d, 2. da\u013ca. Telos.lv, 05.05.2021. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/telos.lv\/realista-rokasgramata-2\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n

[7]<\/a>\u00a0Analytica Posteriora, I \u00a7 9;\u00a0Metaphysica, II \u00a7 3.\u00a0http:\/\/classics.mit.edu\/Browse\/browse-Aristotle.html<\/a>. Simard E., \u00ab Aristote et les caract\u00e8res g\u00e9n\u00e9raux d\u2019une th\u00e9orie scientifique \u00bb,\u00a0Laval th\u00e9ologique et philosophique, Vol. 10, no. 2, 1954, p. 157.<\/p>\n

[8]<\/a>\u00a0Villey M.,\u00a0La formation de la pens\u00e9e juridique moderne. Paris: P.U.F., 2006, pp. 80-85; t.p.aut.,\u00a0Le droit et les droits de l\u2019homme. Paris: P.U.F., 1983, pp. 39-54.<\/p>\n

[9]<\/a>\u00a0Puppinck G.,\u00a0La famille, les droits de l\u2019homme et la vie \u00e9ternelle. Paris:Editions de l\u2019Homme Nouveau, 2015, p. 38.<\/p>\n

[10]<\/a>\u00a0Sk. Arendt H.,\u00a0The Origins of Totalitarianism. Cleveland, New York:\u00a0Meridian Books, 1958, pp. 9, 159, 352, 468-472.<\/p>\n

[11]<\/a>\u00a0Turpat, p. 159.<\/p>\n

[12]<\/a>\u00a0Par \u0161\u0101du intelektu\u0101lu spiedienu sk. Lukianoff G.,\u00a0Unlearning Liberty: Campus Censorship and the End of American Debate. New York: Encounter Books, 2012.<\/p>\n

[13]<\/a>\u00a0Dupuy P. M.,\u00a0Droit international public. 7e\u00a0\u00e9dition. Paris: Dalloz, 2004, p. 1.<\/p>\n

[14]<\/a>\u00a0Vignal T.,\u00a0Droit international priv\u00e9. 2e\u00a0\u00e9dition. Paris: Sirey, 2011, p. 1, 5; Kropholler J.,\u00a0Internationales Privatrecht. 5. Auflage. T\u00fcbingen: Mohr Siebeck Verlag, 2004, S. 1; Bureau D., Muir Watt H.,\u00a0Droit international priv\u00e9. Tome I. Paris: P.U.F., 2007, pp. 26-27<\/p>\n

[15]<\/a>\u00a0Carreau D.,\u00a0Droit international public. 8e \u00e9dition. Paris: Pedone, 2004, p. 33.<\/p>\n

[16]<\/a>\u00a0Puppinck G.,\u00a0Les droits de l\u2019homme d\u00e9natur\u00e9. Paris\u00a0: Les \u00c9ditions du Cerf, 2018, pp. 15-31. Fragmentus no gr\u0101matas latviski var las\u012bt \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/telos.lv\/cilvektiesibu-deklaracija-ciena\/<\/a>\u00a0un\u00a0https:\/\/telos.lv\/starptautiskas-moralas-kartibas-pamati\/<\/a><\/p>\n

[17]<\/a>\u00a0Turpat, pp. 31-37.<\/p>\n

[18]<\/a>\u00a0Rudevska B., \u201cCilv\u0113kties\u012bbu spo\u017eums un posts. 2. da\u013ca. Il\u016bzija\u201d, 28.03.2022. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/telos.lv\/cilvektiesibu-posts-2\/<\/a><\/p>\n

[19]<\/a>\u00a0Puppinck G.,\u00a0op. cit., pp. 83-90.<\/p>\n

[20]<\/a>\u00a0Carreau D.,\u00a0Droit international public. 8e \u00e9dition. Paris: Pedone, 2004, p. 127.<\/p>\n

[21]<\/a>\u00a0\u00a0Sk. 1969. gada 23. maija V\u012bnes konvencijas par starptautisko l\u012bgumu ties\u012bb\u0101m 9. pantu.<\/p>\n

[22]<\/a>\u00a0Par \u201cgender\u201d j\u0113dzienu un teorij\u0101m latvie\u0161u valod\u0101 sk.: Rudevska B., \u201cNepateiktais par Stambulas konvenciju\u201d,\u00a0Jurista V\u0101rds, 2016. gada 7. j\u016bnijs, nr. 23; par ang\u013cu valodas juridisk\u0101 termina \u201cgender\u201d iesp\u0113jamiem tulkojumiem latvie\u0161u valod\u0101 sk.: Rudevska B., Rozi\u0146a G., Karapetjana I., \u201cInterpretation of the Concept\u00a0Gender\u00a0in Legal Discourse\u201d,\u00a0Baltic Journal of English Language, Literature and Culture. Vol. 8, 2018, pp. 101-119. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/dspace.lu.lv\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/d4c9d6bf-4aaf-4ea5-9a60-d2f7ca2e42b4\/content<\/a><\/p>\n

[23]<\/a>\u00a0Turpm\u0101k tekst\u0101 tiks lietots tikai ang\u013cu valodas juridiskais termins \u201cgender\u201d, to netulkojot latvie\u0161u valod\u0101.<\/p>\n

[24]<\/a>\u00a0Sk., piem., ANO Konvencijas par jebk\u0101das sievie\u0161u diskrimin\u0101cijas izskau\u0161anu (CEDAW) 5. pantu, kur\u0101 gan nav min\u0113ts termins \u201cgender\u201d, bet gan \u201csievietes un v\u012brie\u0161i\u201d.<\/p>\n

[25]<\/a>\u00a0Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women. Beijing, 4-15 September, 1995. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0www.un.org\/womenwatch\/daw\/beijing\/<\/a><\/p>\n

[26]<\/a>\u00a0Adolphe J., \u201c\u201cGender\u201d Wars at the United Nations\u201d,\u00a0Ave Maria Law Review, 2012, Vol. 11, nr. 1, pp. 15-16.<\/p>\n

[27]<\/a>\u00a0Turpat, p. 18.<\/p>\n

[28]<\/a>\u00a0Statement by the President of the Conference on the commonly understood meaning of the term \u201cgender\u201d. Annex IV, p. 218. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0www.un.org\/womenwatch\/daw\/beijing<\/a>.<\/p>\n

[29]<\/a>\u00a01998. gada 17. j\u016blija Romas Starptautisk\u0101s Krimin\u0101ltiesas Stat\u016bti: LR starptautisks l\u012bgums,\u00a0Latvijas V\u0113stnesis, 2002, 28. j\u016bnijs, nr. 97.<\/p>\n

[30]<\/a>\u00a0Romas Stat\u016btu latvie\u0161u valodas tulkojum\u0101 termins \u201cgender\u201d tiek tulkots k\u0101 \u201cdzimums\u201d.<\/p>\n

[31]<\/a>\u00a0Atbilsto\u0161i \u201cgender\u201d biolo\u0123iskajai jeb dabiskajai teorijai \u201cgender\u201d\u00a0ir nesaraujami saist\u012bts ar personas biolo\u0123isko dzimumu. Sk. Agnello F., \u201cA New \u201cGender\u201d Definition in International Law: the Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence\u201d,\u00a0Spanish Yearbook of International Law. 2013-2014, p. 92.<\/p>\n

[32]<\/a>\u00a0Agnello F.,\u00a0op.cit., p. 99.<\/p>\n

[33]<\/a>\u00a0Sk. Oosterveld V. The Definition of \u201cGender\u201d in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Step Forward or Back for International Criminal Justice? Harvard Human Rights Journal. 2005, Vol. 18, p. 73, 75.<\/p>\n

[34]<\/a>\u00a0Sk. Yahyaoui Krivenko E. Sex and Gender in International Human Rights Law Through the Prism of\u00a0 \u2018Women\u2019 Category in Recent Case-Law. Human Rights Law Review. 2024, 24, pp. 1-19.<\/p>\n

[35]<\/a>\u00a0Saska\u0146\u0101 ar V\u012bnes konvencijas 31.panta pirmo da\u013cu starptautiskais l\u012bgums tulkojams godpr\u0101t\u012bgi saska\u0146\u0101 ar parasto noz\u012bmi, k\u0101da pie\u0161\u0137irama l\u012bguma noteikumiem kopum\u0101 un atbilsto\u0161i t\u0101 objektam un m\u0113r\u0137im.<\/p>\n

[36]<\/a>\u00a0Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution within the Context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and\/or its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees. HCR\/GIP\/02\/01, 7 May 2002. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0www.unhcr.org<\/a>.<\/p>\n

[37]<\/a>\u00a0Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court. \u201cPolicy paper on sexual and gender-based crimes\u201d. June 2014, paras. 25-27, pp. 15-16. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/www.icc-cpi.int\/sites\/default\/files\/Policy_Paper_on_Sexual_and_Gender-Based_Crimes-20_June_2014-ENG.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n

[38]<\/a>\u00a0\u201cGender\u201d soci\u0101l\u0101 teorija noz\u012bm\u0113 to, ka, ja \u201cgender\u201d ir no abiem biolo\u0123iskajiem dzimumiem atrauts soci\u0101ls konstrukts, tad tas var le\u0123it\u012bmi main\u012bties evol\u016bcijas ce\u013c\u0101 \u2013 ar\u012b tiesiskaj\u0101 regul\u0113jum\u0101. Sk. Agnello F.,\u00a0op. cit., p. 91.<\/p>\n

[39]<\/a>\u00a0Agnello F.,\u00a0op. cit., p. 102.<\/p>\n

[40]<\/a>\u00a0Sk. EP Ministru Komitejas l\u0113mumu CM\/Del\/Dec(2011)1111, 2011, 11. apr\u012blis, 2. punkts. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0www.coe.int<\/a>; sk. ar\u012b: Council of Europe Committee of Ministers Statutory Resolution (93) 27 on Majorities Required for Decisions of the Committee of Ministers (adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 14 May 1993 as its 92nd Session). Pieejama \u0161eit:\u00a0www.coe.int<\/a><\/p>\n

[41]<\/a>\u00a0Bulg\u0101rijas Konstitucion\u0101l\u0101s tiesas 2018. gada 27. j\u016blija spriedums Nr. 13 liet\u0101 Nr. 3. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/www.constcourt.bg\/bg\/act-6340<\/a><\/p>\n

[42]<\/a>\u00a0Bulg\u0101rija parakst\u012bja Stambulas konvenciju 2016. gada 21. apr\u012bl\u012b. Sk. Eiropas Padomes m\u0101jas lap\u0101:\u00a0https:\/\/www.coe.int\/en\/web\/conventions\/full-list?module=signatures-by-treaty&treatynum=210<\/a><\/p>\n

[43]<\/a>\u00a0Report of the International Law Commission. Seventy-first session, 2019, (A\/74\/10). United Nations General Assembly Official Records, pp. 45-46. Pieejams \u0161eit:\u00a0https:\/\/legal.un.org\/ilc\/reports\/2019\/english\/a_74_10_advance.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n

[44]<\/a>\u00a0Sk.:\u00a0ibid, p. 45, 46; Yahyaoui Krivenko E.,\u00a0op. cit., p. 7\u00a0; Albertson Fineman M., \u201cFeminist Legal Theory\u201d,\u00a0Journal of Gender, Social Policy\u00a0& The Law, Vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 13-23.<\/p>\n

[45]<\/a>\u00a0Rubio-Marin R., Morgan M. I., \u201cConstitutional Domestication of International Gender Norms: Categorizations, Illustrations, and Reflections from the Nearside of the Bridge\u201d,\u00a0Gender and Human Rights\u00a0(ed. by Knop K.). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp. 119-129.<\/p>\n

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