• Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., de Vries, S. & Frumkin, H. Nature and health. Annu. Rev. Public Health 35, 207–228 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • IPBES. Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the intergovernmental science-policy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831674 (2019).

  • Bratman, G. N. et al. Nature and mental health: an ecosystem service perspective. Sci. Adv. 5, eaax0903 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • UN-Habitat. World Cities Report 2022: Envisaging the Future of Cities (United Nations, 2022); https://unhabitat.org/wcr/#Introduction-section

  • Lederbogen, F. et al. City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature 474, 498–501 (2011).


    Google Scholar
     

  • van den Bosch, M. & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. Environmental exposures and depression: biological mechanisms and epidemiological evidence. Ann. Rev. Public Health 40, 239–259 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • World Mental Health Report: Transforming Mental Health for All (WHO, 2022); https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240049338

  • Bloom, D. E. et al. The global economic burden of noncommunicable diseases (World Economic Forum, 2012); https://www.weforum.org/publications/global-economic-burden-non-communicable-diseases/

  • Arias, D., Saxena, S. & Verguet, S. Quantifying the global burden of mental disorders and their economic value. eClinicalMedicine 54, 101675 (2022).

  • World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision (United Nations, 2018); https://population.un.org/wup/

  • Browning, M. H. E. M. et al. Measuring the 3-30-300 rule to help cities meet nature access thresholds. Sci. Total Environ. 907, 167739 (2024).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Callaghan, A. et al. The impact of green spaces on mental health in urban settings: a scoping review. J. Ment. Health 30, 179–193 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Urban Agenda for the EU: Greening Cities (UAEU, 2024); https://www.urbanagenda.urban-initiative.eu/partnerships/greening-cities

  • Global Indicator Framework for the Sustainable Development Goals and Targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2019); https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/

  • Roberts, H., van Lissa, C. J., Paulien, H., Kellar, I. & Helbich, M. The effect of short term exposure to the natural environment on depressive mood: a systematic review and meta analysis. Environ. Res. 177, 108606 (2019).

  • Tost, H. et al. Neural correlates of individual differences in affective benefit of real-life urban green space exposure. Nat. Neurosci. 22, 1389–1393 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Wicks, C., Barton, J., Orbell, S. & Andrews, L. Psychological benefits of outdoor physical activity in natural versus urban environments: a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies. Appl. Psychol. Health Well-Being 14, 1037–1061 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Yao, W., Zhang, X. & Gong, Q. The effect of exposure to the natural environment on stress reduction: a meta-analysis. Urban For. Urban Green. 57, 126932 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Smith, N. et al. Urban blue spaces and human health: a systematic review and meta-analysis of quantitative studies. Cities 119, 103413 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • White, M. P., Elliott, L. R., Gascon, M., Roberts, B. & Fleming, L. E. Blue space, health and well-being: a narrative overview and synthesis of potential benefits. Environ. Res. 191, 110169 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Perez-Silva, R., Fernández, I. C., Matas, M. I. & Villalobos, E. Green cover and socioemotional and academic outcomes of school-age children. The case of Santiago, Chile. Landsc. Urban Plan. 233, 104688 (2023).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Garrett, J. K., Clitherow, T. J., White, M. P., Wheeler, B. W. & Fleming, L. E. Coastal proximity and mental health among urban adults in England: the moderating effect of household income. HealthPlace 59, 102200 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Díaz, S. et al. Assessing nature’s contributions to people. Science 359, 270–272 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Miller, K. Cultural attunements and ecological wellbeing: embodied conditions for mental health interventions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 21, 287 (2024).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Haas, B. W., Hoeft, F. & Omura, K. The role of culture on the link between worldviews on nature and psychological health during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pers. Individ. Dif. 170, 110336 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Tam, K.-P. Concepts and measures related to connection to nature: similarities and differences. J. Environ. Psychol. 34, 64–78 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Lund, C. Global mental health and its social determinants: how should we intervene? Behav. Res. Ther. 169, 104402 (2023).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Collins, P. Y. et al. Making cities mental health friendly for adolescents and young adults. Nature 627, 137–148 (2024).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Okkels, N., Kristiansen, C. B., Munk-Jørgensen, P. & Sartorius, N. Urban mental health: challenges and perspectives. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 31, 258 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Buxton, R. T. et al. Mental health is positively associated with biodiversity in Canadian cities. Commun. Earth Environ. 5, 310 (2024).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hammoud, R. et al. Smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment reveals mental health benefits of birdlife. Sci. Rep. 12, 17589 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Russell, R. et al. Humans and nature: how knowing and experiencing nature affect well-being. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 38, 473–502 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Whitburn, J., Linklater, W. & Abrahamse, W. Meta-analysis of human connection to nature and proenvironmental behavior. Conserv. Biol. 34, 180–193 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Bakolis, I. et al. Urban mind: using smartphone technologies to investigate the impact of nature on mental well-being in real time. BioScience 68, 134–145 (2018).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Solmi, M. et al. Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Mol. Psychiatry 27, 281–295 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Zimmermann, P. & Iwanski, A. Emotion regulation from early adolescence to emerging adulthood and middle adulthood: age differences, gender differences, and emotion-specific developmental variations. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 38, 182–194 (2014).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Flouri, E., Ji, D. & Roiser, J. P. The role of urban greenspace in children’s reward and punishment sensitivity. Landsc. Res. 47, 256–270 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Flouri, E., Papachristou, E. & Midouhas, E. The role of neighbourhood greenspace in children’s spatial working memory. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 89, 359–373 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Louv, R. in Last Child in the Woods: Saving our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder (Algonquin Books, 2008).

  • Lyu, B. et al. Bamboo forest therapy contributes to the regulation of psychological responses. J. For. Res. 24, 61–70 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Liu, J., Sun, X., Chen, H. & Yang, Z. Passive nature exposure positively predicts prosocial behavior by alleviating perceived crowdedness. J. Environ. Psychol. 91, 102146 (2023).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kotera, Y., Richardson, M. & Sheffield, D. Effects of Shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) and nature therapy on mental health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Ment. Health Addiction 20, 337–361 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hansen, M. M., Jones, R. & Tocchini, K. Shinrin-yoku (forest bathing) and nature therapy: a state-of-the-art review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 14, 851 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • van Agteren, J. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of psychological interventions to improve mental wellbeing. Nat. Hum. Behav. 5, 631–652 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Shanahan, D. F. et al. Health benefits from nature experiences depend on dose. Sci. Rep. 6, 28551 (2016).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Rosa, C. D., Larson, L. R., Collado, S. & Profice, C. C. Forest therapy can prevent and treat depression: evidence from meta-analyses. Urban For. Urban Green. 57, 126943 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Kondo, M. C. et al. Momentary mood response to natural outdoor environments in four European cities. Environ. Int. 134, 105237 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Hunter, R., Cleary, A. & Braubach, M. in Biodiversity and Health in the face of Climate Change (eds Marselle, M., Stadler, J., Korn, H., Irvine, K. & Bonn, A.) 1–15 (Springer-Verlag, 2019).

  • Shanahan, D. F. et al. Nature–based interventions for improving health and wellbeing: the purpose, the people and the outcomes. Sports 7, 141 (2019).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Martin, L. et al. Mechanisms underlying the associations between different types of nature exposure and sleep duration: an 18-country analysis. Environ. Res. 250, 118522 (2024).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Urban Green Space Interventions and Health: A Review of Impacts and Effectiveness (WHO, 2017); https://www.who.int/europe/publications/m/item/urban-green-space-interventions-and-health–a-review-of-impacts-and-effectiveness.-full-report

  • Homer, C. et al. Conterminous United States land cover change patterns 2001–2016 from the 2016 National Land Cover Database. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens. 162, 184–199 (2020).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Karra, K. et al. Global land use/land cover with Sentinel 2 and deep learning. In 2021 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS) 4704–4707 (IEEE, 2021).

  • Green and Blue Spaces and Mental Health: New Evidence and Perspectives for Action (WHO, 2021); https://repository.uantwerpen.be/docstore/d:irua:7190

  • Zhang, Y. et al. UrbanWatch: a 1-meter resolution land cover and land use database for 22 major cities in the United States. Remote Sens. Environ. 278, 113106 (2022).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Page, M. J. et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 372, n71 (2021).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Gatersleben, B. & Andrews, M. When walking in nature is not restorative—the role of prospect and refuge. Health Place 20, 91–101 (2013).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Brooks, A., Ottley, K., Arbuthnott, K. & Sevigny, P. Nature-related mood effects: season and type of nature contact. J. Environ. Psychol. 54, 91–102 (2017).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Higgins, J. P. T. et al. The Cochrane collaboration’s tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ 343, d5928 (2011).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Barton, J. & Pretty, J. What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44, 3947–3955 (2010).


    Google Scholar
     

  • Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T. & Rothstein, H. R. Introduction to Meta-Analysis (Wiley, 2021).

  • Schwarzer, G., Carpenter, J. R. & Rücker, G. Meta-Analysis with R (Springer, 2015).

  • Cohen, J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (Routledge, 1988).

  • Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J. & Altman, D. G. Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ 327, 557–560 (2003).


    Google Scholar