Africa’s aspiration for universal connectivity cannot be realised without addressing the persistent imbalance in digital access. Reliable broadband must not remain the preserve of the ‘privileged few’ in capital cities and commercial hubs. It must be regarded as a foundational element of inclusive development, integrated into the economic, educational, and social frameworks that shape the continent’s future. 

Last-mile connectivity—the final segment of infrastructure that delivers internet access to end users—remains the most stubborn and technically complex obstacle in this pursuit. The challenge is particularly acute in rural and underserved areas, where geography, infrastructure deficits, and economic constraints combine to widen the digital divide. Despite improvements in national and regional backbone systems, the absence of viable last-mile solutions continues to delay equitable access, especially in low-density and geographically isolated regions.

Today, nearly one in four rural Africans has no realistic possibility of connecting to the internet due to a complete absence of broadband infrastructure (ITU ). More than half the population in 33 of 46 African countries lives in rural areas, with that figure rising to over 60 percent in 23 countries. These communities are persistently excluded from mainstream connectivity rollouts.

The factors driving these numbers are not merely statistical but they reflect deep-rooted infrastructure and design challenges that continue to stall last-mile progress.

This #TechTalkThursay article examines the core bottlenecks that prevent effective last-mile delivery in rural Africa, and highlights innovative, practical models that are beginning to reshape what is possible.

 

Where the Network Stops: The Structural Realities Hindering Rural Last-Mile Delivery

The last mile is not only the most expensive part of internet delivery, it is also the most complex. In rural Africa, this complexity is driven by physical, economic, and logistical barriers that have yet to be resolved at scale. These challenges are not new, but their persistence continues to prevent progress.

Sparse and Unreliable Power Infrastructure

Connectivity infrastructure depends on reliable power. In rural Africa, this remains a critical constraint. According to the World Bank, only 53.3 percent  of Sub-Saharan Africa has access to electricity, and in many rural areas, electrification rates fall below 20 percent. As a result, network infrastructure—when it exists—relies on diesel generators or standalone solar systems, both of which introduce maintenance and cost challenges. Unstable power supply leads to poor network uptime, service disruptions, and higher operational costs, limiting the long-term viability of rural deployments.

Low Population Density and Dispersed Settlements

Deploying fibre or mobile towers in sparsely populated rural zones is economically unviable under traditional commercial models. In areas with fewer than ten people per square kilometre, the capital expenditure per user increases sharply. This significantly affects the business case for mobile operators and internet service providers, particularly in markets where rural Average Revenue Per User (ARPU) is already low.

According to the ITU, only 30 percent of Africa’s population lives within 10 kilometres of an optical fibre node, a critical metric for enabling high-performance last-mile connectivity. Without proximity to a fibre access point, deployment becomes not only more expensive but also less scalable and harder to maintain. These geographic and demographic factors combine to discourage private investment, unless mitigated through public funding, open-access infrastructure, or shared deployment models.

Limited and Fragile Backhaul Infrastructure

Even when last-mile access networks are technically feasible, performance is often undermined by inadequate backhaul. Fibre backhaul, which forms the foundation of scalable broadband networks, remains largely concentrated in urban and peri-urban corridors. Extending it to rural locations is expensive, slow, and logistically complex. ITU data shows that only 28 percent of Africa’s rural population has access to fixed broadband, and much of that access is constrained by weak upstream infrastructure rather than the absence of end-user technology.

Also, half of Africa’s population still lives more than 25 kilometres from a fibre node, and one in five people is situated over 100 kilometres away. These distances are not merely geographic—they represent an infrastructural chasm that continues to hinder meaningful digital access in rural communities.

Terrain, Rights of Way, and Logistical Delays

In many countries, the physical environment complicates network deployment. Mountainous terrain, seasonal flooding, and inadequate roads increase the cost and complexity of transporting equipment and maintaining infrastructure. Beyond physical barriers, bureaucratic processes around rights of way and construction permits add further delays. Delays of 6 to 18 months for approvals are not uncommon in parts of East and Central Africa, making network expansion plans both risky and slow to execute. 

“We need to examine how to eliminate administrative costs, such as right-of-way for fibre deployment. These expenses accumulate and significantly impact the overall cost of data, making it unaffordable for the majority of our population.”

– Angela Wamola, Head of Sub Saharan Africa, GSMA

Rethinking Rural Access: Alternative Models for the Last Mile

If traditional broadband models cannot serve rural Africa, then the question is not whether connectivity is possible—it is how it can be made practical. The reality that one in four rural Africans has no possibility of connecting today makes it clear that last-mile delivery will not be solved through fibre expansion alone. Infrastructure must be reimagined to suit the geography, density, and economics of rural regions. Fortunately, new delivery models are beginning to do just that.

In dispersed and topographically challenging areas, wireless mesh networks have proven useful in extending connectivity across settlements where fixed lines or cellular towers are either too costly or physically impractical. These systems rely on a network of peer-to-peer nodes that distribute internet access across a wide area. Because they require minimal investment and are inherently decentralised, mesh networks offer local ownership and resilience, making them particularly suitable for informal or hard-to-reach communities.

Another approach gaining traction is TV White Space (TVWS)—the use of unassigned television broadcast spectrum to deliver broadband. Its ability to cover long distances and penetrate physical barriers makes it ideal for rural settings with minimal infrastructure. Where permitted, TVWS has connected schools and health centres in regions where fibre or mobile broadband would have been prohibitively expensive or logistically infeasible. However, regulatory support remains inconsistent, limiting wider adoption. 

“TV White Space is a very interesting technology that assists operators in reaching hard-to-reach areas like rural or remotely located areas. It utilizes already available spectrum that has been allocated for broadcasters, but this spectrum has some gaps called TV White Space. These gaps ensure there’s no interference between broadcasters. It can package these gaps to offer affordable broadband in rural areas.”  

– Nathi Mbele, CEO, AdNotes

Where infrastructure does exist but fixed lines are not viable, operators are turning to Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) delivered via LTE or 5G. These setups offer broadband-level speeds without the need for cables, particularly in peri-urban and rural transition zones. In places where energy access is also limited, providers are bundling FWA with solar-powered routers—making this an increasingly viable solution for areas on the edge of network coverage. 

“We believe that fixed wireless access is currently the most advanced and widely adopted use case for 5G. Its time-to-market advantage allows us to deliver world-class broadband services to areas much faster—almost at the click of a button. There is no need to wait for the complex and time-consuming deployment of fibre. Fibre will ultimately offer the most robust and long-term solution, but it requires significant investment, time, and stable conditions. It is not feasible to deploy fibre in areas with only a handful of users or in locations lacking geographical viability. That is why fixed wireless access serves as the perfect interim solution. It allows us to provide connectivity until a critical mass of users justifies fibre deployment at an economically viable point.”

– Roque Lozano, Senior Vice President of Network Infrastructure for the Middle East and Africa, Nokia

Still, there are parts of the continent that fall entirely outside any terrestrial reach. For these regions, non-terrestrial networks (NTNs)—including low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites and high-altitude UAV-based systems—are beginning to fill the gap. These technologies are not future speculation; they are already in operation, providing connectivity to remote schools, humanitarian sites, and agricultural zones. Though still expensive for widespread consumer use, they represent the only realistic option for the 25 percent of rural Africans with no pathway to connectivity today. 

“In rural Africa, the barriers to connectivity are often compounded by a lack of access to essential content—especially in education. That’s where solutions like SKYflow come in. By delivering educational and informational content directly to devices in areas with no broadband, we can support students and families in ways that were previously unimaginable. The impact goes beyond access—it’s about inclusion and opportunity.”

–  Emma Park, Senior Vice President of Growth and Strategy, ST Engineering iDirect

“It is very important to give countries in Africa an opportunity to access that level of connectivity. However, this is not always possible due to limited terrestrial infrastructure, especially in some of the landlocked countries on the continent. Satellite connectivity can help address this gap by bringing internet access to villages that have never had it before. At the moment, a lot of focus is being placed on bridging the digital divide and advancing as many digital inclusion projects across the continent as possible.” 

– Simon Gatty Saunt, Vice President Sales Europe & Africa, SES

Finally, some of the most locally relevant efforts are being driven from the ground up. Community networks, built and managed by local cooperatives or NGOs, are stepping in where commercial providers see no incentive. These micro-ISPs rely on low-cost technology and community ownership models to keep operations sustainable. They do more than deliver access—they anchor digital literacy, create jobs, and serve as a testbed for inclusive, locally governed digital ecosystems.

 

Clearing the Path to Universal Connectivity

Addressing rural last-mile connectivity in Africa requires more than just innovation in delivery but it demands a shift in infrastructure policy, market design, and funding models.

Shared, open-access infrastructure must become the norm to reduce duplication and costs. Universal Service Funds (USFs), when used effectively, can support rural deployment and incentivise operators through subsidies, tax relief, and infrastructure grants. Tower sharing, neutral hosting models, and streamlined right-of-way approvals are equally essential to unlocking rural scale. 

“Insights from the GSMA report on Universal Service Funds in Africa indicate that the funds are underperforming and have become ineffective tools to close the coverage gap, signaling the need for reforms. Political will among governments and policy makers in the region is an important first step towards the journey of USF reforms. This will ensure the core principles of an effective and successful USF hinged on accountability, clarity, service neutrality, transparency, sustainability and visibility are realized.”

– Caroline Mbugua , Senior Director, Public Policy and Communications, Sub-Saharan Africa, GSMA

Public-private partnerships must be designed with rural realities in mind, and not simply mirror urban models. Rural electrification efforts must also expand, incorporating solar and hybrid solutions to keep infrastructure powered and stable.  

There is no single fix for last-mile delivery in Africa. The solution lies in blending technologies, empowering communities, and making smart policy adjustments. As Africa accelerates digital transformation in sectors like agriculture, education, and AI, rural areas must not remain on the margins. The last mile is not an afterthought but it is the foundation of meaningful digital inclusion.