Petroff, E., Hessels, J. W. T. & Lorimer, D. R. Fast radio bursts. Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 27, 4 (2019).
Abbott, B. P. et al. GW170817: observation of gravitational waves from a binary neutron star inspiral. Phys. Rev. Lett. 119, 161101 (2017).
Prentice, S. J. et al. The Cow: discovery of a luminous, hot, and rapidly evolving transient. Astrophys. J. Lett. 865, L3 (2018).
Cooke, B. A. Two short lived X-ray transients at high Galactic latitude. Nature 261, 564–566 (1976).
Rappaport, S. et al. A fast transient source of hard X-rays at high Galactic latitude. Astrophys. J. Lett. 206, L139–L142 (1976).
Soderberg, A. M. et al. An extremely luminous X-ray outburst at the birth of a supernova. Nature 453, 469–474 (2008).
Jonker, P. G. et al. Discovery of a new kind of explosive X-ray transient near M86. Astrophys. J. 779, 14 (2013).
Glennie, A., Jonker, P. G., Fender, R. P., Nagayama, T. & Pretorius, M. L. Two fast X-ray transients in archival Chandra data. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 450, 3765–3770 (2015).
Bauer, F. E. et al. A new, faint population of X-ray transients. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 467, 4841–4857 (2017).
Lin, D., Irwin, J. A., Berger, E. & Nguyen, R. Discovery of three candidate magnetar-powered fast X-ray transients from Chandra archival data. Astrophys. J. 927, 211 (2022).
Quirola-Vásquez, J. et al. Extragalactic fast X-ray transient candidates discovered by Chandra (2000-2014). Astron. Astrophys. 663, A168 (2022).
Quirola-Vásquez, J. et al. Extragalactic fast X-ray transient candidates discovered by Chandra (2014-2022). Astron. Astrophys. 675, A44 (2023).
Alp, D. & Larsson, J. Blasts from the past: supernova shock breakouts among X-ray transients in the XMM-Newton archive. Astrophys. J. 896, 39 (2020).
Novara, G. et al. A supernova candidate at z = 0.092 in XMM-Newton archival data. Astrophys. J. 898, 37 (2020).
Zhang, B. Early X-ray and optical afterglow of gravitational wave bursts from mergers of binary neutron stars. Astrophys. J. Lett. 763, L22 (2013).
MacLeod, M., Guillochon, J., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., Kasen, D. & Rosswog, S. Optical thermonuclear transients from tidal compression of white dwarfs as tracers of the low end of the massive black hole mass function. Astrophys. J. 819, 3 (2016).
Waxman, E. & Katz, B. in Handbook of Supernovae (eds Alsabti, A. W. & Murdin, P.) 967–1015 (Springer, 2017).
Nakar, E. & Piran, T. The observable signatures of GRB cocoons. Astrophys. J. 834, 28 (2017).
Rastinejad, J. C. et al. A kilonova following a long-duration gamma-ray burst at 350 Mpc. Nature 612, 223–227 (2022).
Levan, A. J. et al. Heavy-element production in a compact object merger observed by JWST. Nature 626, 737–741 (2024).
Pian, E. et al. An optical supernova associated with the X-ray flash XRF 060218. Nature 442, 1011–1013 (2006).
Soderberg, A. M. et al. A redshift determination for XRF 020903: first spectroscopic observations of an X-ray flash. Astrophys. J. 606, 994–999 (2004).
Yuan, W. et al. Einstein Probe – a small mission to monitor and explore the dynamic X-ray Universe. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1506.07735 (2015).
Yuan, W., Zhang, C., Chen, Y. & Ling, Z. in Handbook of X-ray and Gamma-ray Astrophysics (eds Bambi, C. & Sangangelo, A.) 1–30 (Springer, 2022).
Liu, Y. et al. Soft X-ray prompt emission from the high-redshift gamma-ray burst EP240315a. Nat. Astron. 9, 564–576 (2025).
Sun, H. et al. Extragalactic fast X-ray transient from a weak relativistic jet associated with a type Ic-BL supernova. Nat. Astron. 9, 1073–1073 (2025).
Xinwen, S. et al. EP241021a: a months-duration X-ray transient with luminous optical and radio emission. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2505.07665 (2025).
Ricci, R. et al. Long-term radio monitoring of the fast X-ray transient EP 240315a: evidence for a relativistic Jet. Astrophys. J. Lett. 979, L28 (2025).
Gao, H.-X. et al. The soft X-ray aspect of gamma-ray bursts in the Einstein Probe era. Astrophys. J. 986, 106 (2024).
van Dalen, J. N. D. et al. The Einstein Probe transient EP240414a: linking fast X-ray transients, gamma-ray bursts, and luminous fast blue optical transients. Astrophys. J. Lett. 982, L47 (2025).
Srivastav, S. et al. Identification of the optical counterpart of the fast X-ray transient EP240414a. Astrophys. J. Lett. 978, L21 (2025).
Busmann, M. et al. The curious case of EP241021a: unraveling the mystery of its exceptional rebrightening. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2503.14588 (2025).
Gianfagna, G. et al. The soft X-ray transient EP241021a: a cosmic explosion with a complex off-axis jet and cocoon from a massive progenitor. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2505.05444 (2025).
Eyles-Ferris, R. A. J. et al. The kangaroo’s first hop: the early fast cooling phase of EP250108a/SN 2025kg. Astrophys. J. Lett. 988, L14E (2025).
Rastinejad, J. C. et al. EP 250108a/SN 2025kg: observations of the most nearby broad-line type Ic supernova following an Einstein Probe fast X-ray transient. Astrophys. J. Lett. 988, L13 (2025).
Tanvir, N. R. et al. Exploration of the high-redshift Universe enabled by THESEUS. Exp. Astron. 52, 219–244 (2021).
Tanvir, N. R. et al. Star formation in the early Universe: beyond the tip of the iceberg. Astrophys. J. 754, 46 (2012).
Heintz, K. E. et al. The cosmic buildup of dust and metals. Accurate abundances from GRB-selected star-forming galaxies at 1.7 z Astron. Astrophys. 679, A91 (2023).
Fausey, H. M. et al. Neutral fraction of hydrogen in the intergalactic medium surrounding high-redshift gamma-ray burst 210905A. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 536, 2839–2856 (2025).
Tanvir, N. R. et al. The fraction of ionizing radiation from massive stars that escapes to the intergalactic medium. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 483, 5380–5408 (2019).
Vielfaure, J. B. et al. Lyman continuum leakage in faint star-forming galaxies at redshift z = 3–3.5 probed by gamma-ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 641, A30 (2020).
Zhang, W. J. et al. Einstein Probe detected of a fast X-ray transient EP240315a. GRB Coordinates Network 35931, 1 (2024).
Svinkin, D. et al. Konus-Wind detection of GRB 240315C (possible counterpart of EP240315a). GRB Coordinates Network 35972, 1 (2024).
DeLaunay, J. et al. GRB 240315C / X-ray transient EP240315a: Swift/BAT detection. GRB Coordinates Network 35971, 1 (2024).
Piro, L. et al. Probing the environment in gamma-ray bursts: the case of an X-ray precursor, afterglow late onset, and wind versus constant density profile in GRB 011121 and GRB 011211. Astrophys. J. 623, 314–324 (2005).
Frontera, F. et al. Prompt and afterglow emission from the X-ray-rich GRB 981226 observed with BeppoSAX. Astrophys. J. 540, 697–703 (2000).
in ’t Zand, J. J. M., Heise, J., van Paradijs, J. & Fenimore, E. E. The prompt X-ray emission of gamma-ray burst 980519. Astrophys. J. Lett. 516, L57–L60 (1999).
Levan, A. J. et al. A new population of ultra-long duration gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 781, 13 (2014).
Srivastav, S. et al. X-ray transient EP240315a: ATLAS detection of a possible optical counterpart AT2024eju. GRB Coordinates Network 35932, 1 (2024).
Gillanders, J. H. et al. Discovery of the optical and radio counterpart to the fast X-ray transient EP 240315a. Astrophys. J. Lett. 969, L14 (2024).
Quirola-Vásquez, J. et al. X-ray transient EP240315a: GTC/OSIRIS spectroscopic redshift confirmation. GRB Coordinates Network 35960, 1 (2024).
Saccardi, A. et al. X-ray transient EP240315a: VLT/X-shooter spectroscopic redshift of z = 4.859. GRB Coordinates Network 35936, 1 (2024).
Wolfe, A. M., Gawiser, E. & Prochaska, J. X. Damped Ly α systems. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 43, 861–918 (2005).
Burrows, D. N. et al. Relativistic jet activity from the tidal disruption of a star by a massive black hole. Nature 476, 421–424 (2011).
Levan, A. J. et al. An extremely luminous panchromatic outburst from the nucleus of a distant galaxy. Science 333, 199 (2011).
Greiner, J. et al. A very luminous magnetar-powered supernova associated with an ultra-long γ-ray burst. Nature 523, 189–192 (2015).
Troja, E. et al. A nearby long gamma-ray burst from a merger of compact objects. Nature 612, 228–231 (2022).
Yang, Y.-H. et al. A lanthanide-rich kilonova in the aftermath of a long gamma-ray burst. Nature 626, 742–745 (2024).
Mandel, I. & Broekgaarden, F. S. Rates of compact object coalescences. Living Rev. Relativ. 25, 1 (2022).
Maguire, K., Eracleous, M., Jonker, P. G., MacLeod, M. & Rosswog, S. Tidal disruptions of white dwarfs: theoretical models and observational prospects. Space Sci. Rev. 216, 39 (2020).
Sakamoto, T. et al. High Energy Transient Explorer 2 observations of the extremely soft X-ray flash XRF 020903. Astrophys. J. 602, 875–885 (2004).
Quirola-Vásquez, J. et al. New JWST redshifts for the host galaxies of CDF-S XT1 and XT2: understanding their nature. Astron. Astrophys. 695, A279 (2025).
Pescalli, A. et al. Luminosity function and jet structure of gamma-ray burst. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 447, 1911–1921 (2015).
Yadav, M. et al. Radio observations point to a moderately relativistic outflow in the fast X-ray transient EP241021a. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2505.08781 (2025).
Jakobsson, P. et al. A mean redshift of 2.8 for Swift gamma-ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 447, 897–903 (2006).
Amati, L. et al. The THESEUS space mission: science goals, requirements and mission concept. Exp. Astron. 52, 183–218 (2021).
Planck Collaboration. et al. Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. Astron. Astrophys. 641, A6 (2020).
Chen, Y. et al. X-ray transient EP240315a: EP-FXT detection of the X-ray afterglow. GRB Coordinates Network 35951, 1 (2024).
Carotenuto, F., Bright, J., Jonker, P. G., Fender, R. & Rhodes, L. X-ray transient EP240315a: MeerKAT radio detection. GRB Coordinates Network 35961, 1 (2024).
Vernet, J. et al. X-shooter, the new wide band intermediate resolution spectrograph at the ESO Very Large Telescope. Astron. Astrophys. 536, A105 (2011).
Goldoni, P. et al. Data reduction software of the X-shooter spectrograph. In Proc. SPIE Conference Series, Ground-based and Airborne Instrumentation for Astronomy (eds McLean, I. S. & Iye, M.) Vol. 6269, 62692K (SPIE, 2006).
Modigliani, A. et al. The X-shooter pipeline. In Proc. SPIE Conference Series, Observatory Operations: Strategies, Processes, and Systems III (eds Silva, D. R. et al.) Vol. 7737, 773728 (SPIE, 2010).
Selsing, J. et al. The X-shooter GRB afterglow legacy sample (XS-GRB). Astron. Astrophys. 623, A92 (2019).
Cupani, G. et al. Astrocook: your starred chef for spectral analysis. In Proc. SPIE Conference Series, Software and Cyberinfrastructure for Astronomy VI (eds Guzman, J. C. & Ibsen, J.) Vol. 11452, 114521U (SPIE, 2020).
Vielfaure, J. B. et al. Gamma-ray bursts as probes of high-redshift Lyman-α emitters and radiative transfer models. Astron. Astrophys. 653, A83 (2021).
Krogager, J.-K. VoigtFit: a Python package for Voigt profile fitting. Preprint at https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1803.01187 (2018).
van Dokkum, P. G. Cosmic-ray rejection by Laplacian edge detection. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 113, 1420–1427 (2001).
Tody, D. The IRAF data reduction and analysis system. In Proc. SPIE Conference Series, Instrumentation in Astronomy VI (ed. Crawford, D. L.) Vol. 627, 733 (SPIE, 1986).
Lang, D., Hogg, D. W., Mierle, K., Blanton, M. & Roweis, S. Astrometry.net: blind astrometric calibration of arbitrary astronomical images. Astron. J. 139, 1782–1800 (2010).
Seifert, W. et al. LUCIFER: a multi-mode NIR instrument for the LBT. In Proc. SPIE Conference Series, Instrument Design and Performance for Optical/Infrared Ground-based Telescopes (eds Iye, M. & Moorwood, A. F. M.) Vol. 4841, 962–973 (SPIE, 2003).
Fontana, A. et al. The Hawk-I UDS and GOODS Survey (HUGS): survey design and deep K-band number counts. Astron. Astrophys. 570, A11 (2014).
Nasa High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (Heasarc). HEAsoft: unified release of FTOOLS and XANADU. Astrophysics Source Code Library ascl:1408.004 (2014).
Willingale, R., Starling, R. L. C., Beardmore, A. P., Tanvir, N. R. & O’Brien, P. T. Calibration of X-ray absorption in our Galaxy. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 431, 394–404 (2013).
Wilms, J., Allen, A. & McCray, R. On the absorption of X-rays in the interstellar medium. Astrophys. J. 542, 914–924 (2000).
Cash, W. Parameter estimation in astronomy through application of the likelihood ratio. Astrophys. J. 228, 939–947 (1979).
Kraft, R. P., Burrows, D. N. & Nousek, J. A. Determination of confidence limits for experiments with low numbers of counts. Astrophys. J. 374, 344 (1991).
Heise, J., Zand, J. I., Kippen, R. M. & Woods, P. M. X-ray flashes and X-ray rich gamma ray bursts. In Proc. ESO Astrophysics Symposia, Gamma-ray Bursts in the Afterglow Era (eds Costa, E. et al.) 16–21 (Springer, 2001).
D’Alessio, V., Piro, L. & Rossi, E. M. Properties of X-ray rich gamma ray bursts and X-ray flashes detected with BeppoSAX and HETE-2. Astron. Astrophys. 460, 653–664 (2006).
Evans, P. A. et al. The Swift Burst Analyser. I. BAT and XRT spectral and flux evolution of gamma ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 519, A102 (2010).
Brown, G. C. et al. Swift J1112.2-8238: a candidate relativistic tidal disruption flare. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 452, 4297–4306 (2015).
Bloom, J. S. et al. A possible relativistic jetted outburst from a massive black hole fed by a tidally disrupted star. Science 333, 203 (2011).
Levan, A. J. et al. Late time multi-wavelength observations of Swift J1644+5734: a luminous optical/IR bump and quiescent X-ray emission. Astrophys. J. 819, 51 (2016).
Mangano, V., Burrows, D. N., Sbarufatti, B. & Cannizzo, J. K. The definitive X-ray light curve of Swift J164449.3+573451. Astrophys. J. 817, 103 (2016).
Cenko, S. B. et al. Swift J2058.4+0516: discovery of a possible second relativistic tidal disruption flare? Astrophys. J. 753, 77 (2012).
Pasham, D. R. et al. A multiwavelength study of the relativistic tidal disruption candidate Swift J2058.4+0516 at late times. Astrophys. J. 805, 68 (2015).
Andreoni, I. et al. A very luminous jet from the disruption of a star by a massive black hole. Nature 612, 430–434 (2022).
Pasham, D. R. et al. The birth of a relativistic jet following the disruption of a star by a cosmological black hole. Nat. Astron. 7, 88–104 (2023).
Evans, P. A. et al. An online repository of Swift/XRT light curves of γ-ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 469, 379–385 (2007).
Evans, P. A. et al. Methods and results of an automatic analysis of a complete sample of Swift-XRT observations of GRBs. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 397, 1177–1201 (2009).
Schulze, S. et al. GRB 120422A/SN 2012bz: bridging the gap between low- and high-luminosity gamma-ray bursts. Astron. Astrophys. 566, A102 (2014).
Zhang, B.-B., Zhang, B., Murase, K., Connaughton, V. & Briggs, M. S. How long does a burst burst? Astrophys. J. 787, 66 (2014).
Ghirlanda, G. & Salvaterra, R. The cosmic history of long gamma-ray bursts. Astrophys. J. 932, 10 (2022).
Hjorth, J. et al. The Optically Unbiased Gamma-Ray Burst Host (TOUGH) Survey. I. Survey design and catalogs. Astrophys. J. 756, 187 (2012).
Perley, D. A. et al. The Swift GRB host galaxy legacy survey. II. Rest-frame near-IR luminosity distribution and evidence for a near-solar metallicity threshold. Astrophys. J. 817, 8 (2016).
Eappachen, D. et al. Probing for the host galaxies of the fast X-ray transients XRT 000519 and XRT 110103. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 514, 302–312 (2022).
Eappachen, D. et al. The fast X-ray transient XRT 210423 and its host galaxy. Astrophys. J. 948, 91 (2023).
Dhillon, V. S. et al. HiPERCAM: a quintuple-beam, high-speed optical imager on the 10.4-m Gran Telescopio Canarias. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 507, 350–366 (2021).