Thermal management has become a crucial issue in system design and reliability in the age of highly efficient and compact electronic gadgets. Resistors, capacitors, MOSFETs, and IGBTs are among the increasingly dense arrays of microelectronic components used in modern electronic systems, and each one produces a considerable amount of heat when in use. These parts have tight thermal working limitations, and going over them could result in failure or performance reduction. When exposed to high temperatures, active components like IGBTs have major reliability problems that could result in thermal runaway and total device failure, but other protective devices, like fuses, depend on thermal thresholds for circuit protection.<\/p>\n
In modern electronic systems, traditional cooling methods which are mostly reliant on forced air convection present a number of drawbacks. Within small device enclosures, the recirculation of warm air may unintentionally impact nearby components, resulting in thermal interference and localized hot spots. Furthermore, as a result of significantly increased heat flux densities brought about by the continuous trend toward device reductions in size, traditional cooling techniques are becoming less effective1<\/a>. This phenomenon of thermal intensification required creative cooling methods that can handle the twin problems of increased thermal loads and limited space. Therefore, it is now crucial to create sophisticated cooling systems to guarantee device dependability, increase operational longevity, and preserve ideal performance characteristics2<\/a>. In closely packed electronic assemblies, good thermal management must not only remove heat but also avoid thermal cross-talk between components. In order to satisfy these exacting standards, this study explores innovative cooling techniques, emphasizing solutions that get around the drawbacks of conventional techniques and support the ongoing downsizing of electronic equipment3<\/a>. Promvonge and Eiamsa-ard4<\/a> experimental study investigates heat transfer, friction factor, and enhancement efficiency in a circular tube fitted with conical-ring turbulators and twisted-tape swirl generators under constant wall heat flux conditions. Results show that combining both devices increases the Nusselt number by 4\u201310% and enhancement efficiency by 4\u20138% compared to using the conical-ring alone, with a maximum heat transfer improvement of 367% at Y\u2009=\u20093.75. Empirical correlations for Nusselt number, friction factor, and performance evaluation criteria are developed to assess the effectiveness of these enhancement techniques. Rashidi et al.5<\/a> conducted a three-dimensional numerical study on nanofluid flow in a square duct with transverse twisted-baffles, using the finite volume method to simulate forced convection. The study found that a baffle pitch of c\u2009=\u2009360 maximized heat transfer, while c\u2009=\u2009540 minimized pressure drop. Increasing nanoparticle volume fraction or adding baffles reduced thermal entropy generation, optimizing heat transfer performance and thermodynamic efficiency. Alvarado et al.6<\/a> investigated the heat transfer performance of liquid-cooled heat sinks with conventional and novel microchannel flow field configurations using CFD simulations in ANSYS FLUENT under laminar flow conditions. Results highlight improved temperature uniformity, flow distribution, and reduced pumping power in novel configurations compared to conventional ones. The study concludes that novel flow fields offer significant advantages for heat sink applications in electronics, fuel cells, and solar cells. Khaleduzzaman et al.7<\/a> experimentally analyzed the energy and exergy performance of a rectangular minichannel heat sink using Al\u2082O\u2083-water nanofluid as a coolant. Results showed a maximum energy efficiency of 94.68% at 0.25 vol.% nanofluid with a 0.375\u00a0l\/min flow rate, while the highest exergy improvement (60.86%) occurred at 1.0\u00a0l\/min. Exergy efficiency increased with nanoparticle concentration, while friction factor decreased with higher flow rates but increased with nanoparticle volume fraction. Bahiraei and Hangib8<\/a> reviewed recent advancements in magnetic nanofluids (MNFs), which consist of magnetic nanoparticles suspended in a non-magnetic base fluid. Their study highlights MNFs\u2019 unique thermophysical properties, controllable heat transfer under magnetic fields, and applications in natural and forced convection, boiling, and other thermal processes. The review also discusses existing challenges and potential future research directions in MNF technology. Muhammad Ali et al.9<\/a> experimentally optimized heat transfer in electronic circuits using pin\u2013fin heat sinks filled with phase change materials (PCMs). Various pin\u2013fin configurations (rectangular, round, and triangular) were tested with six PCMs to evaluate thermal performance, operational time, and storage efficiency. Results indicate that triangular pin-fins provide the highest heat transfer efficiency, both with and without PCM integration. Kumar et al.10<\/a> conducted a thermofluidic analysis of an Al\u2082O\u2083-water nanofluid-cooled branched wavy heat sink microchannel (BWHS MC) using ANSYS Fluent and validated it against experiments with a straight channel heat sink (SCHS MC). The BWHS MC enhanced heat transfer through secondary flow, vortex formation, and boundary layer reinitialization, albeit with a higher pressure drop. Results showed a 154% increase in the heat transfer coefficient at 2% nanofluid concentration and Re\u2009=\u2009300 compared to SCHS MC. Adnan et al.11<\/a> developed a hybrid nanofluid model using graphene and Fe\u2083O\u2084 nanoparticles to study fluid dynamics in a channel with expanding\/contracting walls, incorporating effects like Joule heating and magnetic fields. Numerical results show that increasing nanoparticle concentration enhances density and thermal conductivity, with hybrid nanofluids exhibiting superior heat transfer performance. The study highlights the influence of wall motion, energy dissipation, and thermal radiation on fluid behavior, demonstrating the potential of hybrid nanofluids for advanced thermal applications. Barbar et al.12<\/a> investigated the thermal performance of liquid-cooled straight channel heat sinks for high-power electronics, analyzing the effects of a hydrophobic coating under varying heating powers, flow rates, and orientations. Results showed that while higher Reynolds numbers improved heat transfer, the hydrophobic coating reduced the Nusselt number by up to 20.85% due to bubble retention, though it slightly decreased pressure drop. The study highlights the broader applicability of heat sinks in industries like automotive, aerospace, and renewable energy systems. Bahiraei and Heshmatian12<\/a> reviewed the application of nanofluids in electronics cooling, highlighting their potential to enhance heat dissipation and enable further miniaturization. The study examines factors like liquid block type, nanoparticle material, energy consumption, and second-law efficiency, identifying key benefits and challenges. Findings suggest that nanofluids can significantly improve cooling performance in liquid blocks and heat pipes, paving the way for advanced thermal management in electronics. Bezaatpour and Goharkhah13<\/a> proposed an innovative method to enhance convective heat transfer in mini heat exchangers using an external magnetic field to induce swirling flow in magnetic nanofluids. Numerical simulations showed up to 320% heat transfer enhancement with minimal pressure drop due to improved mixing and boundary layer disruption. The study concludes that optimal performance is achieved at low Reynolds numbers, high magnetic field intensities, and high nanofluid concentrations. Everts et al.14<\/a> studied mixed convective flow in vertical tubes at low laminar Reynolds numbers, analyzing heat transfer characteristics for upward and downward flows under forced convection. Experiments and simulations showed that as Reynolds numbers dropped below 250 (upward) and 600 (downward), free convection effects became significant, affecting Nusselt numbers. Correlations were developed to predict Nusselt numbers for assisting and opposing laminar flows. Goharkhah and Ashjaee15<\/a> numerically investigated forced convective heat transfer of Fe\u2083O\u2084-water nanofluid in a 2D channel under an alternating non-uniform magnetic field. Results showed a maximum heat transfer enhancement of 13.9% at Re\u2009=\u20092000 and f\u2009=\u200920\u00a0Hz, with an optimal frequency for different Reynolds numbers. Although heat transfer improved with increasing magnetic field intensity, a minor pressure drop penalty of up to 6% was observed. Bhattacharyya et al.16<\/a> numerically analyzed heat transfer in a wavy minichannel using Fe\u2083O\u2084-water nanofluid under an external magnetic field at low Reynolds numbers. Results showed up to 103.54% heat transfer enhancement at 3000 G, with downstream magnet placement improving heat transfer but increasing pressure drop. The wavy minichannel demonstrated better performance than a plain channel, especially at low magnetic fields. Bezaatpour and Goharkhah17<\/a> proposed an active vortex generator using a uniform magnetic field to enhance heat transfer in ferrofluid-cooled heat sinks. Numerical simulations showed up to 37.8% heat transfer enhancement with a 29.18% pressure drop reduction due to improved flow mixing and reduced surface contact. Increasing magnetic field intensity and adding a second vortex generator further optimized performance. Bhattacharyya et al.18<\/a> numerically analyzed the effect of an external magnetic field on Fe\u2083O\u2084-water nanofluid flow in an inclined channel. Results showed up to 19.27% heat transfer enhancement with a 2000G field, accompanied by an 89.23% increase in friction factor. Magnetic fields reduced pressure drop for positive inclinations but increased it for negative ones. The thermal enhancement factor improved by up to 12.50%, indicating better performance across various inclinations. Bhattacharyya et al.19<\/a> experimentally investigated heat transfer, pressure drop, and thermal performance in a solar air heater tube with hybrid tapes under turbulent flow. Results showed that increasing width ratio and decreasing pitch ratio enhanced both Nusselt number and friction factor, with respective increases of 91% and 39%. The thermal performance factor remained above unity for all configurations. This highlights the effectiveness of hybrid tapes in improving heat transfer efficiency. Bhattacharyya et al.20<\/a> numerically analyzed the thermal and flow performance of Fe\u2083O\u2084-water nanofluid in a 2D channel under a magnetic field at low Reynolds numbers. The magnetic field acted as a vortex generator, enhancing heat transfer by up to 47.64% at x\u2009=\u200925\u00a0mm but also inducing pressure drop variations. In some cases, frictional pressure drop reduction led to a net decrease in overall pressure drop. The study highlights the trade-off between heat transfer enhancement and pressure drop due to vortex formation. Vishwakarma et al.21<\/a> conducted forced convection experiments in a circular duct with spring tape inserts to investigate heat transfer and pressure drop across various Reynolds numbers. The study found that decreasing the spring ratio led to an earlier onset of transition and an increased transition length. The transition Reynolds number range varied with different spring ratios under constant heat flux conditions. The study also provides predictive Nusselt number and friction factor correlations for various flow regimes. Kumar and Sarkar22<\/a> analyzed heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics in a minichannel heat sink using Al2O3\u2013TiO2 hybrid nanofluids. The study showed that the two-phase mixture model provided better agreement with experimental data than the single-phase model. The convective heat transfer coefficient was enhanced by 12.8% experimentally and 8.5% numerically with Al2O3 (10:0) hybrid nanofluid. Pressure drop and friction factor increased with nanoparticle volume fraction and decreased temperature, but no synergistic effect was observed with the hybrid nanofluid. Xuan et al.23<\/a> used the lattice-Boltzmann method to develop mesoscopic models for simulating flow and thermal processes of ferrofluid in microchannels. The models accounted for various forces and potentials acting on the ferrofluid system, including heat exchange between magnetic nanoparticles and the surrounding liquid. Numerical examples demonstrated how adjusting the magnetic field gradient\u2019s orientation and magnitude could either enhance or suppress heat transfer in the ferrofluid. This study provides insights into optimizing ferrofluid flow and heat transfer using external magnetic fields. Li et al.24<\/a> conducted a combined experimental and numerical study on liquid-cooled aluminum foam (AF) heat sinks for high-power electronics cooling. The study revealed that AF heat sinks with higher pore densities (20 PPI) exhibited improved thermal performance compared to lower pore densities (10 PPI), with the Nusselt number up to 1.76 times greater than that of an empty channel. The study used the Brinkman-Forchheimer model for momentum and both LTNE and LTE models for heat transfer analysis. The findings showed that the LTNE model provided more accurate predictions of temperature distributions, while non-equilibrium effects were less significant at higher flow velocities. Zhou et al.25<\/a> developed a hybrid oscillating heat pipe (OHP) for electric vehicle (EV) battery cooling using CNT nanofluids in ethanol\u2013water mixtures. The experimental results showed that CNT nanofluids, particularly at a 0.2 wt% concentration, enhanced heat transfer performance and reduced evaporator temperature and thermal resistance compared to ethanol\u2013water mixtures. The OHP significantly improved the cooling efficiency, keeping the battery pack temperature below 45\u00a0\u00b0C with a minimal temperature difference of 1\u00a0\u00b0C. This approach offers a promising solution for efficient cooling during rapid charging and discharging processes in EVs. In this work, fluid flow and heat transfer properties in mini-channels with three different configurations\u2014parallel, staggered, and ribbed geometries\u2014are thoroughly and methodically investigated. Rahaman et al.26<\/a>numerically analyzed mixed convective heat transfer in a grooved channel cavity using CuO-water nanofluid under an inclined magnetic field. Results showed that optimal heat transfer occurred when the heater was positioned at the right corner, enhancing heat transfer by up to 168.53% compared to bottom heating. The magnetic field inclination significantly influenced thermal performance, initially increasing and then declining with angle. This study highlights the importance of heater positioning and magnetic field orientation for improving heat transfer in electronic cooling and heat exchange applications.Manna et al.27<\/a> numerically investigated the transition from unsteady to steady flow in a magneto-nanofluidic thermal system with a recto-triangular shape using CuO-water nanofluid. Results showed the evolution of multi-vortical structures, transitioning from four-cell to one-cell and finally to two-cell configurations as Rayleigh number (Ra) varied from 103 to 105. The inclination of the magnetic field significantly influenced flow dynamics, with the system rapidly stabilizing except for specific Ra and Hartmann number (Ha) values. This study provides insights into the impact of magnetic fields on multi-cellular convection structures in thermal systems. Pandit et al.28<\/a> analyzed thermal-fluid behavior in a tilted porous enclosure filled with Cu-Al\/water hybrid nanofluid under segmented magnetic fields, wavy cooling, and distributed heat sources. Using FVM and the SIMPLE algorithm, the study showed that wavy walls and segmented heating enhanced heat transfer by up to 38%, while strategic magnetic field orientation improved it by 26%. The results highlighted the role of surface area increase, boundary layer disruption, and localized convection in thermal performance enhancement. This study offers insights for optimizing heat transfer in electronics cooling, solar collectors, and nuclear reactors. Datta et al.29<\/a> numerically investigated buoyancy-driven free convection in a solar air heating system using an \u2018H\u2019-shaped cavity filled with a porous medium. The study analyzed fluid flow and heat transfer using air and Cu-water nanofluid across various Rayleigh and Darcy numbers, porosity levels, nanoparticle concentrations, and heater aspect ratios. Results showed that nanofluids enhanced heat transfer compared to air, with optimal aspect ratios improving thermal performance at higher Rayleigh numbers. This research provides insights into optimizing SAH systems for efficient solar energy utilization.Halder et al.30<\/a> explored thermal management in a semi-circular vented cavity with multi-segmental bottom heating, hybrid nanofluids, and a magnetizing field. The study analyzed heat transfer performance using various control parameters, including Reynolds, Rayleigh, and Hartmann numbers. Results showed a 68% enhancement in heat transfer with segmented heating, with the optimal configuration achieved using two heating segments. This research provides insights for improving thermal performance in electronics cooling, solar power, and industrial heat exchangers.Biswas et al.31<\/a> investigated mixed convection heat transfer enhancement in a grooved channel using flow injection under an assisting flow configuration. The study analyzed the effects of injection position, size, and flow rate for different Reynolds and Richardson numbers. Results showed heat transfer improvement ranging from 50 to 218%, demonstrating the effectiveness of injection in optimizing thermal performance .Li et al.32<\/a> investigated the oscillating flow of Jeffrey fluid in a rough circular microchannel with slip boundary conditions using the perturbation method. Their findings reveal that velocity and volumetric flow rate are influenced by slip length, wall roughness, and wave numbers across different angular Reynolds numbers. The study highlights the significance of these parameters in biomedical applications, particularly in modeling physiological fluid flow. Akbar et al.33<\/a> developed a numerical solver using a two-layer backpropagation Levenberg\u2013Marquardt artificial neural network (BLMS-ANN) to analyze MHD effects on thermal radiation in nanofluid flow between rotating plates. The MHD-TRTM model was transformed into ODEs and validated using Homotopy Analysis Method (HAM) datasets for training and testing. Their approach demonstrated high accuracy (10-10 to 10\u207b12) in predicting solutions across various physical scenarios. Shoaib et al.34<\/a> utilized the Levenberg\u2013Marquardt backpropagation neural network (TLMB-NN) to analyze heat transfer in Maxwell nanofluid flow with MHD over a vertical moving surface. The study incorporated thermal energy effects, Brownian motion, and radiation, transforming governing equations into nonlinear ODEs using similarity transformation. The TLMB-NN model, validated through regression analysis and error metrics, achieved high accuracy (10-9 to 10-10) across various parameter variations. Ullah et al.35<\/a> developed a Levenberg\u2013Marquardt algorithm-based artificial neural network (LMA-BANN) model to obtain an accurate series solution for micropolar flow in a porous channel with mass injection. The model was trained, tested, and validated using data from the optimal homotopy asymptotic (OHA) method, with performance evaluated through mean square error and absolute error metrics. The LMA-BANN model demonstrated high accuracy (E-05 to E-08) and was further assessed using error histogram and regression plots. Zeng et al.36<\/a> proposed a cavitation detection method for vortex pumps using dual-tree complex wavelet transform (DT-CWT) and variational mode decomposition (VMD) to analyze current signals. A Bayesian-optimized locally weighted k-nearest neighbor (LW-KNN) algorithm was employed for accurate identification, achieving an overall recognition accuracy of 94.22%. This approach enhances reliability and fault diagnosis in fluid mechanical systems, improving operational efficiency and maintenance strategies. Wang et al.37<\/a> developed a permanent magnet-based flow velocity meter to address high output drift in traditional marine electromagnetic sensors. By measuring electrode output current instead of voltage, the proposed design significantly reduces drift by 92% and achieves high measurement accuracy (R2\u2009=\u20090.998) within a velocity range of 0\u20130.875\u00a0m\/s. This innovation enhances underwater flow sensing for robotic and marine applications. Ullah et al.38<\/a> analyzed the effects of electric and magnetic fields on micropolar nanofluid flow between rotating parallel plates under Hall current influence (EMMN-PPRH) using an artificial neural network with Levenberg\u2013Marquardt backpropagation (ANN-SLMB). The model, trained on homotopy analysis method (HAM) data, was validated through regression analysis and error metrics, achieving high accuracy (10\u207b\u2079 to 10\u207b11). This approach enhances predictive modeling for complex fluid dynamics.Ullah et al.39<\/a> employed the Levenberg\u2013Marquardt backpropagation neural network (LMBT-NN) to analyze heat and mass transfer in MHD nanofluid flow over a vertical cone under convective boundary conditions. By transforming PDEs into ODEs and utilizing numerical techniques, the model was validated through regression analysis and error metrics, achieving high accuracy (E-9 to E-10). This study enhances predictive capabilities for complex thermal-fluid systems. Akbar et al.40<\/a> utilized the Levenberg\u2013Marquardt backpropagation neural network (LMB-NNS) to model MHD nanofluid flow over a rotating disk with partial slip effects based on the Buongiorno model. By transforming PDEs into ODEs and applying numerical methods, the model was validated through regression analysis and error metrics, achieving high accuracy (10\u207b\u2079 to 10\u207b12). This study enhances predictive modeling for complex fluid flow applications. Sheikholeslami et al.41<\/a> investigated the thermal management of lithium-ion battery packs using four advanced mini-channel designs\u2014Smooth, Grooved, Tooth, and Pin Fin combined with a hybrid Fe\u2083O\u2084-SWCNT nanofluid. Their conduction-based simulations showed that the Pin Fin configuration significantly improved heat transfer, achieving a Nusselt number over five times higher than the Smooth channel. The study emphasizes the critical role of channel geometry and nanofluid properties in optimizing battery cooling performance and safety. Aliabadi et al.42<\/a> numerically investigated heat sinks with various convergent and divergent minichannel geometries cooled by turbulent supercritical CO\u2082 flow, using 3D finite volume simulations. Their results showed that converging channels significantly enhance heat transfer coefficients while managing pressure drops efficiently due to CO\u2082\u2019s thermophysical variations near the critical point. This study highlights the potential of supercritical CO\u2082 as an advanced coolant for high-performance heat sinks with optimized channel designs. Aliabadi et al.43<\/a> conducted 3D numerical simulations to investigate heat transfer and flow characteristics of wavy mini-channel heat sinks using supercritical and pseudocritical CO\u2082 under high heat flux conditions. Their results showed that wavy channels significantly enhance thermal performance\u2014up to 8.58 times higher heat transfer coefficient\u2014though at the cost of increased pressure drop. The study highlights that optimizing wave amplitude, wavelength, and inlet temperature can markedly improve the overall cooling efficiency of CO\u2082-based miniature heat sinks. Aliabadi et al.44<\/a> numerically analyzed advanced liquid-cooled aluminum heat sinks with various fin arrangements for thermal management in concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systems. Their study demonstrated that interrupted fin designs improve temperature uniformity by up to 30.6% and reduce thermal stress and pumping power compared to integral fins. The optimal fin configuration ensured minimal temperature differences between cells and enhanced overall thermal\u2013hydraulic performance under high concentration conditions.<\/p>\n In contrast to previous works, we present a new experimental setup by studying these structures with the help of well-placed magnetic sources (individually at x\u2009=\u200915\u00a0mm and x\u2009=\u200925\u00a0mm) and uniform magnetic field intensities of 800 G, 1000 G, 1500 G, and 2000 G. Its comprehensive approach to examining the combined impacts of source placement, magnetic field intensity, and channel shape on thermal and hydrodynamic performance is the study\u2019s main innovation. We offer insights into optimizing heat transfer efficiency in ribbed mini-channels by investigating these yet unexplored factors. By addressing important gaps in the literature, our findings demonstrate how magnetic fields can be customized to improve convective cooling in compact systems. Thermal management solutions for high-power electronics and data center cooling applications could be greatly advanced by this research. Further research aiming at improving magnetic field-assisted cooling methods for industrial use is made possible by the novel experimental design and data produced.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"Thermal management has become a crucial issue in system design and reliability in the age of highly efficient…\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":327340,"comment_status":"","ping_status":"","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[3845],"tags":[118016,8173,118015,3965,118012,42218,118014,3966,118011,74,70,16,15,118013],"class_list":{"0":"post-327339","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","5":"has-post-thumbnail","7":"category-physics","8":"tag-electronic-device-cooling","9":"tag-engineering","10":"tag-heat-transfer-enhancement","11":"tag-humanities-and-social-sciences","12":"tag-magnetic-nanofluids","13":"tag-mechanical-engineering","14":"tag-minichannel-cooling","15":"tag-multidisciplinary","16":"tag-other-nanotechnology","17":"tag-physics","18":"tag-science","19":"tag-uk","20":"tag-united-kingdom","21":"tag-vortex-generators"},"share_on_mastodon":{"url":"https:\/\/pubeurope.com\/@uk\/114992047885894339","error":""},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/327339","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=327339"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/327339\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/327340"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=327339"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=327339"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.europesays.com\/uk\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=327339"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}