Yoneda, J. et al. Quantum non-demolition readout of an electron spin in silicon. Nat. Commun. 11, 1144 (2020).
Takeda, K., Noiri, A., Nakajima, T., Kobayashi, T. & Tarucha, S. Quantum error correction with silicon spin qubits. Nature 608, 682–686 (2022).
Connors, E. J., Nelson, J. & Nichol, J. M. Rapid high-fidelity spin-state readout in Si/Si-Ge quantum dots via rf reflectometry. Phys. Rev. Appl. 13, 024019 (2020).
Oakes, G. A. et al. Fast high-fidelity single-shot readout of spins in silicon using a single-electron box. Phys. Rev. X 13, 011023 (2023).
Takeda, K. et al. Rapid single-shot parity spin readout in a silicon double quantum dot with fidelity exceeding 99%. npj Quantum Inf 10, 22 (2024).
Yoneda, J. et al. A quantum-dot spin qubit with coherence limited by charge noise and fidelity higher than 99.9%. Nat. Nanotechnol. 13, 102–106 (2018).
Wu, Y.-H. et al. Simultaneous high-fidelity single-qubit gates in a spin qubit array. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.11918 (2025).
Xue, X. et al. Quantum logic with spin qubits crossing the surface code threshold. Nature 601, 343–347 (2022).
Madzik, M. T. et al. Precision tomography of a three-qubit donor quantum processor in silicon. Nature 601, 348–353 (2022).
Noiri, A. et al. Fast universal quantum gate above the fault-tolerance threshold in silicon. Nature 601, 338–342 (2022).
Tanttu, T. et al. Assessment of the errors of high-fidelity two-qubit gates in silicon quantum dots. Nat. Phys. 20, 1804–1809 (2024).
Steinacker, P. et al. Industry-compatible silicon spin-qubit unit cells exceeding 99% fidelity. Nature 646, 81–87 (2025).
Fowler, A. G., Mariantoni, M., Martinis, J. M. & Cleland, A. N. Surface codes: towards practical large-scale quantum computation. Phys. Rev. A 86, 032324 (2012).
Philips, S. G. J. et al. Universal control of a six-qubit quantum processor in silicon. Nature 609, 919–924 (2022).
Pauka, S. J. et al. A cryogenic CMOS chip for generating control signals for multiple qubits. Nat. Electron. 4, 64–70 (2021).
Ruffino, A. et al. A cryo-CMOS chip that integrates silicon quantum dots and multiplexed dispersive readout electronics. Nat. Electron. 5, 53–59 (2022).
Gonzalez-Zalba, M. F. et al. Scaling silicon-based quantum computing using CMOS technology. Nat. Electron. 4, 872–884 (2021).
Veldhorst, M. et al. A two-qubit logic gate in silicon. Nature 526, 410–414 (2015).
Yang, C. H. et al. Operation of a silicon quantum processor unit cell above one kelvin. Nature 580, 350–354 (2020).
Maune, B. M. et al. Coherent singlet-triplet oscillations in a silicon-based double quantum dot. Nature 481, 344–347 (2012).
Fogarty, M. A. et al. Integrated silicon qubit platform with single-spin addressability, exchange control and single-shot singlet-triplet readout. Nat. Commun. 9, 4370 (2018).
Jock, R. M. et al. A silicon metal-oxide-semiconductor electron spin-orbit qubit. Nat. Commun. 9, 1768 (2018).
Jock, R. M. et al. A silicon singlet–triplet qubit driven by spin-valley coupling. Nat. Commun. 13, 641 (2022).
Maurand, R. et al. A CMOS silicon spin qubit. Nat. Commun. 7, 13575 (2016).
Urdampilleta, M. et al. Gate-based high fidelity spin readout in a CMOS device. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 737–741 (2019).
Camenzind, L. C. et al. A hole spin qubit in a fin field-effect transistor above 4 kelvin. Nat. Electron. 5, 178–183 (2022).
Zwerver, A. M. J. et al. Qubits made by advanced semiconductor manufacturing. Nat. Electron. 5, 184–190 (2022).
Ha, S. D. et al. Two-dimensional Si spin qubit arrays with multilevel interconnects. PRX Quantum 6, 030327 (2025).
Pakkiam, P. et al. Single-shot single-gate rf spin readout in silicon. Phys. Rev. X 8, 041032 (2018).
West, A. et al. Gate-based single-shot readout of spins in silicon. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 437–441 (2019).
Zheng, G. et al. Rapid gate-based spin read-out in silicon using an on-chip resonator. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 742–746 (2019).
Gambetta, J., Braff, W. A., Wallraff, A., Girvin, S. M. & Schoelkopf, R. J. Protocols for optimal readout of qubits using a continuous quantum nondemolition measurement. Phys. Rev. A 76, 012325 (2007).
Ono, K., Austing, D. G., Tokura, Y. & Tarucha, S. Current rectification by Pauli exclusion in a weakly coupled double quantum dot system. Science 297, 1313–1317 (2002).
Elzerman, J. M. et al. Single-shot read-out of an individual electron spin in a quantum dot. Nature 430, 431–435 (2004).
Vigneau, F. et al. Probing quantum devices with radio-frequency reflectometry. Appl. Phys. Rev. 10, 021305 (2023).
Schoelkopf, R. J., Wahlgren, P., Kozhevnikov, A. A., Delsing, P. & Prober, D. E. The radio-frequency single-electron transistor (rf-set): a fast and ultrasensitive electrometer. Science 280, 1238–1242 (1998).
Betz, A. C. et al. Dispersively detected Pauli spin-blockade in a silicon nanowire field-effect transistor. Nano Lett. 15, 4622–4627 (2015).
Harvey-Collard, P. et al. High-fidelity single-shot readout for a spin qubit via an enhanced latching mechanism. Phys. Rev. X 8, 021046 (2018).
van Diepen, C. J. et al. Electron cascade for distant spin readout. Nat. Commun. 12, 77 (2021).
Gusenkova, D. et al. Quantum nondemolition dispersive readout of a superconducting artificial atom using large photon numbers. Phys. Rev. Appl. 15, 064030 (2021).
Stuyck, N. I. D. et al. Uniform spin qubit devices with tunable coupling in an all-silicon 300 mm integrated process. In Proc. 2021 Symposium on VLSI Circuits 1–2 (IEEE, 2021).
Hogg, M. et al. Single-shot readout of multiple donor electron spins with a gate-based sensor. PRX Quantum 4, 010319 (2023).
Lainé, C. et al. High-fidelity dispersive spin sensing in a tuneable unit cell of silicon MOS quantum dots. Preprint at https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.10435 (2025).
Peri, L. et al. Polarimetry with spins in the solid state. Nano Lett. 25, 9285–9292 (2025).
Apostolidis, P. et al. Quantum paraelectric varactors for radiofrequency measurements at millikelvin temperatures. Nat. Electron. 7, 760–767 (2024).
Nakajima, T. et al. Quantum non-demolition measurement of an electron spin qubit. Nat. Nanotechnol. 14, 555–560 (2019).
Veldhorst, M. et al. Spin-orbit coupling and operation of multivalley spin qubits. Phys. Rev. B 92, 201401 (2015).
Tanttu, T. et al. Controlling spin-orbit interactions in silicon quantum dots using magnetic field direction. Phys. Rev. X 9, 021028 (2019).
Wu, X. et al. Two-axis control of a singlet-triplet qubit with an integrated micromagnet. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 111, 11938–11942 (2014).
Connors, E. J., Nelson, J., Edge, L. F. & Nichol, J. M. Charge-noise spectroscopy of Si/SiGe quantum dots via dynamically-decoupled exchange oscillations. Nat. Commun. 13, 940 (2022).
Liles, S. D. et al. A singlet-triplet hole-spin qubit in MOS silicon. Nat. Commun. 15, 7690 (2024).
Jirovec, D. et al. A singlet-triplet hole spin qubit in planar Ge. Nat. Mater. 20, 1106–1112 (2021).
Cifuentes, J. D. et al. Bounds to electron spin qubit variability for scalable CMOS architectures. Nat. Commun. 15, 4299 (2024).
Dial, O. E. et al. Charge noise spectroscopy using coherent exchange oscillations in a singlet-triplet qubit. Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 146804 (2013).
Elsayed, A. et al. Low charge noise quantum dots with industrial CMOS manufacturing. npj Quantum Inf. 10, 70 (2024).
Paquelet Wuetz, B. et al. Reducing charge noise in quantum dots by using thin silicon quantum wells. Nat. Commun. 14, 1385 (2023).
Patomäki, S. M. et al. Pipeline quantum processor architecture for silicon spin qubits. npj Quantum Inf. 10, 31 (2024).
Stano, P. & Loss, D. Review of performance metrics of spin qubits in gated semiconducting nanostructures. Nat. Rev. Phys. 4, 672–688 (2022).
Sigillito, A. J., Gullans, M. J., Edge, L. F., Borselli, M. & Petta, J. R. Coherent transfer of quantum information in a silicon double quantum dot using resonant SWAP gates. npj Quantum Inf 5, 110 (2019).
von Horstig, F.-E. et al. Multimodule microwave assembly for fast readout and charge-noise characterization of silicon quantum dots. Phys. Rev. Appl. 21, 044016 (2024).
Ahmed, I. et al. Radio-frequency capacitive gate-based sensing. Phys. Rev. Appl. 10, 014018 (2018).
Kranz, L. et al. Exploiting a single-crystal environment to minimize the charge noise on qubits in silicon. Adv. Mater. 32, 2003361 (2020).
Lodari, M. et al. Low percolation density and charge noise with holes in germanium. Mater. Quantum Technol. 1, 011002 (2021).