Beniston, M. et al. The European mountain cryosphere: a review of its current state, trends, and future challenges. Cryosphere 12, 759–794 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rodell, M. et al. Emerging trends in global freshwater availability. Nature 557, 651–659 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Immerzeel, W. W. et al. Importance and vulnerability of the world’s water towers. Nature 577, 364–369 (2020).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Hock R. et al. in IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (eds Pörtner, H. O. et al.) 131–202 (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2019).

Niittynen, P., Heikkinen, R. K. & Luoto, M. Snow cover is a neglected driver of Arctic biodiversity loss. Nat. Clim. Change 8, 997–1001 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Matiu, M. et al. Observed snow depth trends in the European Alps: 1971 to 2019. Cryosphere 15, 1343–1382 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Auer, I. et al. HISTALP—historical instrumental climatological surface time series of the Greater Alpine Region. Int. J. Climatol. 27, 17–46 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Casty, C., Wanner, H., Luterbacher, J., Esper, J. & Böhm, R. Temperature and precipitation variability in the European Alps since 1500. Int. J. Climatol. 25, 1855–1880 (2005).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cook, E. R. et al. Old World megadroughts and pluvials during the Common Era. Sci. Adv. 1, e1500561 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Pauling, A., Luterbacher, J., Casty, C. & Wanner, H. Five hundred years of gridded high-resolution precipitation reconstructions over Europe and the connection to large-scale circulation. Clim. Dynam. 26, 387–405 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Coppola, A., Leonelli, G., Salvatore, M. C., Pelfini, M. & Baroni, C. Tree-ring based summer mean temperature variations in the Adamello-Presanella Group (Italian Central Alps), 1610–2008 ad. Clim. Past 9, 211–221 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Trachsel, M. et al. Multi-archive summer temperature reconstruction for the European Alps, ad 1053–1996. Quat. Sci. Rev. 46, 66–79 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Büntgen, U., Esper, J., Frank, D. C., Nicolussi, K. & Schmidhalter, M. A 1052-year tree-ring proxy for Alpine summer temperatures. Clim. Dynam. 25, 141–153 (2005).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Büntgen, U., Frank, D. C., Nievergelt, D. & Esper, J. Summer temperature variations in the European Alps, A.D. 755–2004. J. Clim. 19, 5606–5623 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Corona, C. et al. Millennium-long summer temperature variations in the European Alps as reconstructed from tree rings. Clim. Past 6, 379–400 (2010).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Fritts, H. C. Tree Rings and Climate (Academic Press, 1976).

Coulthard, B. L. et al. Snowpack signals in North American tree rings. Environ. Res. Lett. 16, 034037 (2021).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Appleton, S. N. & St. George, S. High-elevation mountain hemlock growth as a surrogate for cool-season precipitation in Crater Lake National Park, USA. Dendrochronologia 52, 20–28 (2018).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Mercalli L. & Castellano C. Western Italian Alps Monthly Snowfall and Snow Cover Duration, Version 1 (NSIDC, 1999).

Valt, M. & Cianfarra, P. Recent snow cover variability in the Italian Alps. Cold Reg. Sci. Tech. 64, 146–157 (2010).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Beniston, M. Is snow in the Alps receding or disappearing? WIREs Clim. Change 3, 349–358 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Klein, G., Vitasse, Y., Rixen, C., Marty, C. & Rebetez, M. Shorter snow cover duration since 1970 in the Swiss Alps due to earlier snowmelt more than to later snow onset. Clim. Change 139, 637–649 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Hüsler, F., Jonas, T., Riffler, M., Musial, J. P. & Wunderle, S. A satellite-based snow cover climatology (1985–2011) for the European Alps derived from AVHRR data. Cryosphere 8, 73–90 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Notarnicola, C. Hotspots of snow cover changes in global mountain regions over 2000–2018. Remote Sens. Environ. 243, 111781 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Körner, C. Alpine Treelines: Functional Ecology of the Global High Elevation Tree Limits (Springer, 2012).

Carrer, M., Pellizzari, E., Prendin, A. L., Pividori, M. & Brunetti, M. Winter precipitation—not summer temperature—is still the main driver for Alpine shrub growth. Sci. Total Environ. 682, 171–179 (2019).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Kotlarski, S. et al. 21st century alpine climate change. Clim. Dynam. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-022-06303-3 (2022).

Largeron, C. et al. Toward snow cover estimation in mountainous areas using modern data assimilation methods: a review. Front. Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00325 (2020).

Carturan, L. et al. Reconstructing fluctuations of La Mare Glacier (Eastern Italian Alps) in the late holocene: new evidence for a Little Ice Age maximum around 1600 ad. Geogr. Ann. Ser. A 96, 287–306 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Brázdil, R. et al. Droughts in the Czech Lands, 1090–2012 ad. Clim. Past 9, 1985–2002 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Pfister, C., Rohr, C. & Jover, A. Euro-Climhist: eine Datenplattform der Universität Bern zur Witterungs-, Klima-und Katastrophengeschichte. Wasser Energie Luft 109, 45–48 (2017).

Pfister, C. & Wanner, H. Climate and Society in Europe: The Last Thousand Years (Haupt, 2021).

Brugnara, Y. et al. December 1916: deadly wartime weather. Geogr. Bernensia G91, 8 (2016).


Google Scholar
 

Dozier, J., Bair, E. H. & Davis, R. E. Estimating the spatial distribution of snow water equivalent in the world’s mountains. WIREs Water 3, 461–474 (2016).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Fayad, A. et al. Snow hydrology in Mediterranean mountain regions: a review. J. Hydrol. 551, 374–396 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Belmecheri, S., Babst, F., Wahl, E. R., Stahle, D. W. & Trouet, V. Multi-century evaluation of Sierra Nevada snowpack. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 2–3 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Beikircher, B. & Mayr, S. The hydraulic architecture of Juniperus communis L. ssp. communis: shrubs and trees compared. Plant Cell Environ. 31, 1545–1556 (2008).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Pellizzari, E., Pividori, M. & Carrer, M. Winter precipitation effect in a mid-latitude temperature-limited environment: the case of common juniper at high elevation in the Alps. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 104021 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Jones, H. G., Pomeroy, J. W., Walker, D. A. & Hoham, R. W. Snow Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Examination of Snow-Covered Ecosystems (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001).

Trawöger, L. Convinced, ambivalent or annoyed: Tyrolean ski tourism stakeholders and their perceptions of climate change. Tour. Manag. 40, 338–351 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Morrison, C. & Pickering, C. M. Perceptions of climate change impacts, adaptation and limits to adaption in the Australian Alps: the ski-tourism industry and key stakeholders. J. Sust. Tour. 21, 173–191 (2013).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

McCright, A. M., Dunlap, R. E. & Xiao, C. The impacts of temperature anomalies and political orientation on perceived winter warming. Nat. Clim. Change 4, 1077–1081 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Stoffel, M. & Corona, C. Future winters glimpsed in the Alps. Nat. Geosci. 11, 458–460 (2018).

Article 
CAS 

Google Scholar
 

Adams R. P. Junipers of the World: The Genus Juniperus (Trafford Publishing, 2014).

Marty, C., Schlögl, S., Bavay, M. & Lehning, M. How much can we save? Impact of different emission scenarios on future snow cover in the Alps. Cryosphere 11, 517–529 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wigley, T. M. L., Briffa, K. R. & Jones, P. D. On the average value of correlated time series with applications in dendroclimatology and hydrometeorology. J. Clim. Appl. Meteor. 23, 201–213 (1984).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Brigham, E. O. The Fast Fourier Transform and its Applications (Prentice-Hall, 1988).

Brunetti, M., Maugeri, M., Monti, F. & Nannia, T. Temperature and precipitation variability in Italy in the last two centuries from homogenised instrumental time series. Int. J. Climatol. 26, 345–381 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Simolo, C., Brunetti, M., Maugeri, M. & Nanni, T. Evolution of extreme temperatures in a warming climate. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL048437 (2011).

Venema, V. K. C. et al. Benchmarking homogenization algorithms for monthly data. Clim. Past 8, 89–115 (2012).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Auer, A. H. The rain versus snow threshold temperatures. Weatherwise https://doi.org/10.1080/00431672.1974.9931684 (1974).

Feiccabrino, J., Graff, W., Lundberg, A., Sandström, N. & Gustafsson, D. Meteorological knowledge useful for the improvement of snow rain separation in surface based models. Hydrology 2, 266–288 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Bartlett, P. A., MacKay, M. D. & Verseghy, D. L. Modified snow algorithms in the Canadian land surface scheme: model runs and sensitivity analysis at three boreal forest stands. Atmos. Ocean 44, 207–222 (2006).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Dai, A. Temperature and pressure dependence of the rain–snow phase transition over land and ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL033295 (2008).

Ohmura, A. Physical basis for the temperature-based melt-index method. J. Appl. Metorol. 40, 753–761 (2001).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Rango, A. & Martinec, J. Revisiting the degree-day method for snowmelt computations. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 31, 657–669 (1995).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wake, L. M. & Marshall, S. J. Assessment of current methods of positive degree-day calculation using in situ observations from glaciated regions. J. Glaciol. 61, 329–344 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Senese, A., Maugeri, M., Vuillermoz, E., Smiraglia, C. & Diolaiuti, G. Using daily air temperature thresholds to evaluate snow melting occurrence and amount on Alpine glaciers by T-index models: the case study of the Forni Glacier (Italy). Cryosphere 8, 1921–1933 (2014).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Di Luzio, M., Johnson, G. L., Daly, C., Eischeid, J. K. & Arnold, J. G. Constructing retrospective gridded daily precipitation and temperature datasets for the conterminous United States. J. Appl. Meteorol. Climatol. 47, 475–497 (2008).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Matiu, M. et al. Snow cover in the European Alps: station observations of snow depth and depth of snowfall. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4064128 (2021).

Daly, C. et al. Physiographically sensitive mapping of climatological temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States. Int. J. Climatol. 28, 2031–2064 (2008).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

von Arx, G., Crivellaro, A., Prendin, A. L., Cufar, K. & Carrer, M. Quantitative wood anatomy—practical guidelines. Front. Plant Sci. 7, 781 (2016).


Google Scholar
 

Gärtner, H. & Schweingruber, F. H. Microscopic Preparation Techniques for Plant Stem Analysis (Kessel, 2013).

Stokes, M. A. & Smiley, T. L. Introduction to Tree-Ring Dating (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968).

Holmes, R. L. Computer-assisted quality control in tree-ring dating and measurement. Tree Ring Bull. 43, 69–78 (1983).


Google Scholar
 

Melvin, T. M., Briffa, K. R., Nicolussi, K. & Grabner, M. Time-varying-response smoothing. Dendrochronologia 25, 65–69 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Esper, J., Cook, E. R., Krusic, P. J., Peters, K. & Schweingruber, F. H. Tests of the RCS method for preserving low-frequency variability in long tree-ring chronologies. Tree-Ring Res. 59, 81–98 (2003).


Google Scholar
 

Cook, E. R., Briffa, K. R., Meko, D. M., Graybill, D. A. & Funkhouser, G. The ‘segment length curse’ in long tree-ring chronology development for palaeoclimatic studies. Holocene 5, 229–237 (1995).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Cook, E. R., Briffa, K., Shiyatov, S., Mazepa, V. & Jones, P. D. in Methods of Dendrochronology (eds Cook, E. R. & Kairiukstis, L. A.) 97–162 (Kluwer, 1990).

McCarroll, D., Young, G. H. & Loader, N. J. Measuring the skill of variance-scaled climate reconstructions and a test for the capture of extremes. Holocene 25, 618–626 (2015).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Buras, A., Zang, C. & Menzel, A. Testing the stability of transfer functions. Dendrochronologia 42, 56–62 (2017).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Wilmking, M. et al. Global assessment of relationships between climate and tree growth. Glob. Change Biol. 26, 3212–3220 (2020).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Carrer, M., Dibona, R., Prendin, A. L. & Brunetti, M. Recent waning snowpack in the Alps is unprecedented in the last six centuries: data. Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7330950; https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7333328 (2022).

Citterio, M. et al. The fluctuations of italian glaciers during the last century: a contribution to knowledge about alpine glacier changes. Geogr. Ann. Ser. A 89, 167–184 (2007).

Article 

Google Scholar
 

Senese, A. et al. Modelling shortwave and longwave downward radiation and air temperature driving ablation at the Forni Glacier (Stelvio National Park, Italy). Geogr. Fis. Din. Quat. 39, 89–100 (2016).


Google Scholar
 

Zemp, M. et al. (eds) WSGS (2012): Fluctuations of Glaciers 2005–2010 Vol. X (World Glacier Monitoring Service, 2012).

Zemp, M. et al. (eds) WGMS (2013): Glacier Mass Balance (World Glacier Monitoring Service, 2013).

Zemp, M. et al. (eds) WGMS (2021): Global Glacier Change (World Glacier Monitoring Service, 2021).