Gray, T. et al. Neofelis nebulosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e. T14519A198843258 (2021).
Dinerstein, E. & Mehta, J. N. The clouded Leopard in Nepal. Oryx 23, 199–201 (1989).
Davies, R. G. Sighting of a clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) in a troop of Pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina) in Khao Yai National park, Thailand. Siam Soc. Nat. History Bull. 38, 95–96 (1990).
Austin, S. C. & Tewes, M. E. Ecology of the clouded Leopard in Khao Yai National park, Thailand. Cat News 31, 17–18 (1999).
Sunquist, M. & Sunquist, F. Wild cats of the world (The University of Chicago Press, 2002).
Grassman, L. I., Tewes, M. E., Silvy, N. J. & Kreetiyutanont, K. Ecology of three sympatric felids in a mixed evergreen forest in northcentral Thailand. J. Mammal. 86, 29–38 (2005).
Grassman, L. I. Comparative ecology of sympatric felids in phu khieo wildlife sanctuary, Thailand (Texas A&M University-Kingsville, 2004).
Borah, J. et al. Abundance and density estimates for common Leopard Panthera Pardus and clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Manas National park, assam, India. Oryx 48, 149–155 (2014).
Bhatt, U. & Lyngdoh, S. Secrets of the clouded leopard: abundance, habitat use and carnivore coexistence in tropical forest of Manas National park, assam, India. Oryx 57(6), 757–768 (2023).
Mohamad, S. W. et al. The first description of population density and habitat use of the Mainland clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa within a logged-primary forest in South East Asia. Popul. Ecol. 57(3), 495–503 (2015).
Petersen, W. J., Steinmetz, R., Sribuarod, K. & Ngoprasert, D. Density and movements of Mainland clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) under conditions of high and low poaching pressure. Global Ecol. Conserv. 23, e01117 (2020).
MacDonald, D. W. et al. Multi‐scale habitat modelling identifies Spatial conservation priorities for Mainland clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa). Divers. Distrib. 25(10), 1639–1654. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12967 (2019).
Lele, N., Joshi, P. K. & Agrawal, S. P. Assessing forest fragmentation in Northeastern region (NER) of India using landscape matrices. Ecol. Ind. 8(5), 657–663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2007.10.002 (2008).
ISFR India state of forest report forest survey of India & Dehradun, accessed on 16 Jan 2024; https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2011 (2011).
ISFR. India state of forest report forest survey of India & Dehradun, accessed on 16 Jan 2024; https://fsi.nic.in/forest-report-2021-details (2021).
Chakraborty, K., Sudhakar, S., Sarma, K. K., Raju, P. L. N. & Das, A. K. Recognizing the rapid expansion of rubber Plantation—A threat to native forest in parts of Northeast India. Curr. Sci. 114(01), 207. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v114/i01/207-213 (2018).
McGarigal, K. & McComb, W. C. Relationships between landscape structure and breeding birds in the Oregon Coast range. Ecol. Monogr. 65, 235–260 (1995).
Lande, R. Risks of population extinction from demographic and environmental stochasticity and random catastrophes. Am. Nat. 142, 911–927 (1993).
Caughley, G. Directions in conservation biology. J. Anim. Ecol. 63, 215–244 (1994).
Lacy, R. C. Considering threats to the viability of small populations using individual-based models. Ecol. Bull. 48, 39–52 (2000).
Kanagaraj, R., Wiegand, T., Kramer-Schadt, S., Anwar, M. & Goyal, S. P. Assessing habitat suitability for tiger in the fragmented Terai Arc landscape of India and Nepal. Ecography 34(6), 970–981 (2011).
Reddy, P. A. et al. Genetic evidence of tiger population structure and migration within an isolated and fragmented landscape in Northwest India. PLoS ONE 7(1), e29827 (2012).
Chundawat, R. S., Gogate, N. & Johnsingh, A. J. T. Tigers in panna: preliminary results from an Indian tropical dry forest. In: Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes 123–129 (Camb. Univ. Press., 1999).
Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., Kumar, N. S. & Hines, J. E. Assessing tiger population dynamics using photographic capture–recapture sampling. Ecology 87(11), 2925–2937 (2006).
Karanth, K. U. October The 6% solution—a new recipe for saving wild tigers. Conservation India, accessed 13 October 2023; https://www.conservationindia.org/articles/the-six-percent-solution-a-new-recipe-for-saving-wild-tigers (2005).
Sarkar, M. S. et al. Long-distance dispersal and home range establishment by a female sub-adult tiger (Panthera tigris) in the Panna landscape, central India. Eur. J. Wildl. Res. 67(3), 1–7 (2021).
Perkins-Taylor, I. E. & Frey, J. K. Predicting the distribution of a rare chipmunk (Neotamias quadrivittatus oscuraensis): comparing maxent and occupancy models. J. Mammal. 101(4), 1035–1048 (2020).
Guisan, A. & Thuiller, W. Predicting species distribution: offering more than simple habitat models. Ecol. Lett. 8(9), 993–1009 (2005).
Guisan, A. & Zimmermann, N. E. Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecol. Model. 135(2–3), 147–186 (2000).
Tan, C. K. W. et al. Habitat use and predicted range for the Mainland clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Peninsular Malaysia. Biol. Conserv. 206, 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.12.012 (2017).
Penjor, U., Macdonald, D. W., Wangchuk, S., Tandin, T. & Tan C.K.W. Identifying important conservation areas for the clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa in a mountainous landscape: inference from Spatial modeling techniques. Ecol. Evol. 8(8), 4278–4291 (2018).
Shrestha, A. et al. Mapping distribution and identifying gaps in protected area coverage of vulnerable clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) in Nepal: Implications for conservation management. Int. J. Geoheritage Parks. 9(4), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgeop.2021.11.001 (2021).
Abedin, I., Singha, H., Kang, H-E., Kim, H-W. & Kundu, S. Forecasting suitable habitats of the clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) in Asia: Insights into the present and future climate projections within and beyond extant boundaries. Biology 13(11), 902. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13110902 (2024).
Phillips, S. J., Anderson, R. P. & Schapire, R. E. Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecol. Model. 190, 231–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2005.03.026 (2006).
Wang, F., Yuan, X., Sun, Y. & Liu, Y. Species distribution modeling based on maxent to inform biodiversity conservation in the central urban area of Chongqing municipality. Ecol. Ind. 158, 111491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.111491 (2024).
Mukherjee, S. et al. Ecology driving genetic variation: A comparative phylogeography of jungle Cat (Felis chaus) and Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) in India. PLoS ONE. 5(10), e13724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013724 (2010).
McCarthy, J. L., Wibisono, H. T., McCarthy, K. P., Fuller, T. K. & Andayani, N. Assessing the distribution and habitat use of four felid species in Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. Global Ecol. Conserv. 3, 210–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2014.11.009 (2015).
Hearn, A. J. et al. Predicted distribution of the Sunda clouded Leopard Neofelis diardi (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) on Borneo. Raffles Bull. Zool. (S33) (2016).
Rahman, D. A. et al. Density and Spatial partitioning of endangered sympatric Javan Leopard (Felidae) and Dholes (Canidae) in a tropical forest landscape. Folia Zool. 67(3–4), 207. https://doi.org/10.25225/fozo.v67.i3-4.a8.2018 (2018).
Bajaj, S. & Amali, G. B. D. Species Environmental Niche Distribution Modeling for Panthera tigris tigris ‘Royal Bengal Tiger’ Using Machine Learning. In Emerging Research in Computing, Information, Communication and Applications (eds N. R. Shetty, L. M. Patnaik, H. C. Nagaraj, P. N. Hamsavath, N. Nalini.) Vol. 882, 251–263 (Springer Singapore, 2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5953-8_22
Bora, J. K. et al. Assessing the habitat use, suitability and activity pattern of the rusty-spotted Cat Prionailurus rubiginosus in Kanha Tiger Reserve, India. Mammalia 84(5), 459–468. https://doi.org/10.1515/mammalia-2019-0032 (2020).
Nezami, B., Shams-Esfandabad, B., Najafi, Siavashan, N., Asadi, Z. & Ramezani, J. Asiatic cheetah’s (Acinonyx Jubatus venaticus Griffith, 1821) (Felidae: Carnivora) habitat suitability modeling in Iran. J. Wildl. Biodivers. https://doi.org/10.22120/jwb.2020.128638.1151 (2020). Online First.
Silva, A. P., Mukherjee, S., Ramakrishnan, U., Fernandes, C. & Björklund, M. Closely related species show species-specific environmental responses and different Spatial conservation needs: Prionailurus cats in the Indian Subcontinent. Sci. Rep. 10(1), 18705. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74684-8 (2020).
Jangid, A. K. et al. Hunting of hunted: An ensemble modeling approach to evaluate suitable habitats for caracals in India. Ecol. Processes. 11(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-022-00396-8 (2022).
Mishra, R. et al. Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus distribution and habitat suitability in Nepal. Ecol. Evol. 12(4), e8857 (2022).
Ram, M. et al. Living on the sea-coast: Ranging and habitat distribution of Asiatic lions. Sci. Rep. 12(1), 19235. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-23761-1 (2022).
Rosenberg, D. K., Noon, B. R. & Meslow, E. C. Biological corridors: Form, function, and efficacy. BioScience 47(10), 677–687 (1997).
Alzate, A. & Onstein, R. E. Understanding the relationship between dispersal and range size. Ecol. Lett. 25, 2303–2323. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14089 (2022).
Padró, J. et al. Energy landscape and life-history requirements shape habitat use in an extreme soaring specialist. Landsc. Ecol. 40, 136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-025-02137-6 (2025).
Taylor, P. D., Fahrig, L., Henein, K. & Merriam, G. Connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure. Oikos 571–573 (1993).
Calabrese, J. M. & Fagan, W. F. A comparison-shopper’s guide to connectivity metrics. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2(10), 529–536 (2004).
Kindlmann, P. & Burel, F. Connectivity measures: A review. Landscape Ecol. 23, 879–890 (2008).
Kaszta, Ż. et al. Simulating the impact of belt and road initiative and other major developments in Myanmar on an ambassador felid, the clouded leopard, neofelis nebulosa. Landsc. Ecol. 35, 727–746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-00976-z (2020).
Rathore, C.S., Dubey, Y., Shrivastava, A., Pathak, P., Patil, V. Opportunities of habitat connectivity for tiger(Panthera tigris) between Kanha and Pench National Parks in Madhya Pradesh, India. PLoS ONE 7 (7), e39996. (2012).
Dutta, T., Sharma, S., McRae, B. H., Roy, P. S. & DeFries, R. Connecting the dots: Mapping habitat connectivity for Tigers in central India. Reg. Envriron. Chang. 16, 53–67 (2016).
Habib, B., Nigam, P., Mondal, I., Hussain, Z., Ghaskadbi, P., Govekar, R. S., Praveen, N., Banerjee, R., Ramanujam, R. M. & Ramgaonkar, J. (2021a). Modelling landscape permeability for dispersal and colonization of Tigers (Panthera tigris) in the greater Panna landscape, Central India. Landscape Ecol.38 (3), 797–819 (2023).
Census of India. Government of India (2011). http://censusindia.gov.in
Rodgers, W. A., Panwar, H. S. & Mathur, V. B. Wildlife protected area network in India: A review (Executive summary) (Wildlife institute of India, 2002).
Champion, H. G. & Seth, S. K. A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India(Manager of Publications, Government of India, 1968).
Myers, N. et al. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403, 853–858. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002501 (2000).
Trew, B. T. & Maclean, I. M. D. Vulnerability of global biodiversity hotspots to climate change. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 30, 768–783. https://doi.org/10.1111/geb.13272 (2021).
MacDonald, D. W. et al. Multi-scale habitat selection modeling identifes threats and conservation opportunities for the Sunda clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi). Biol. Conserv. 227, 92–103 (2018).
Wikramanayake, E. et al. Designing a conservation landscape for Tigers in human-dominated environments. Conserv. Biol. 18(3), 839–844 (2004).
GBIF. GBIF.org. GBIF Occurrence Download. https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.xq7kdh (2024).
Brown, J. L., Bennett, J. R. & French, C. M. SDMtoolbox 2.0: The next generation Python-based GIS toolkit for landscape genetic, bio-geographic and species distribution model analyses. PeerJ 5, e4095. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4095 (2017).
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S. A. & Ene, E. FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Categorical Maps. Computer software program produced by the authors; available at the following web site: https://www.fragstats.org
Gao, T. & Shi, J. The potential global distribution of Sirex juvencus (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) under near current and future Climatic conditions as predicted by the maximum entropy model. Insects 12, 222. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects1203022 (2016).
Vu, T. T. et al. An assessment of the impact of climate change on the distribution of the grey-shanked Douc Pygathrix cinerea using an ecological niche model. Primates 61, 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-019-00763-8 (2019).
Jha, R. & Jha, K. K. Future habitat suitability and population status of two critically endangered resident Gyps vultures in a Northern Indian state predicted through modelling. Earth History Biodivers. 4, 100025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hisbio.2025.100025 (2025).
Rew, J., Cho, Y., Moon, J. & Hwang, E. Habitat suitability Estimation using a two-stage ensemble approach. Remote Sens. 12, 1475. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12091475 (2020).
Barbosa, A. M., Real, R., Munoz, A. & Brown, J. A. New measures for assessing model equilibrium and prediction mismatch in species distribution models. Divers. Distrib. 19, 1333–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12100 (2013).
McRae, B. H. & Kavanagh, D. M. Linkage mapper connectivity analysis software (The Nature Conservancy, 2011).
McRae, B. H. Pinchpoint mapper connectivity analysis software. The Nature Conservancy, Seattle WA. (2012). http://www.circuitscape.org/linkagemapper
Zeller, K. A., McGarigal, K. & Whiteley, A. R. Estimating landscape resistance to movement: A review. Landsc. Ecol. 27, 777–797 (2012).
Forman, R. T. Road ecology: Science and solutions (Island, 2003).
van der Ree, R., Cesarini, S., Sunnucks, P., Moore, J. L. & Taylor, A. Large gaps in canopy reduce road crossing by a gliding mammal. Ecol. Soc. 15(4). (2010).
Habib, B., Ghaskadbi, P., Khan, S., Hussain, Z. & Nigam, P. Not a cakewalk: Insights into movement of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes in India. Ecol. Evol. 11(4), 1653–1666 (2021).
McRae, B. H., Shirk, A. J. & Platt, J. T. Gnarly Landscape Utilities: Resistance and Habitat Calculator User Guide (The Nature Conservancy, 2013). https://.org/gnarly-landscape-utilities.
Saaty, T. L. Modeling unstructured decision-making-AHP. In International Conference on Mathematical Modeling (1977).
Saura, S. & Torné, J. conefor 2.6 user manual (Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 2012).
McRae, B. H. Centrality Mapper Connectivity Analysis Software (The Nature Conservancy, 2012). http://www.circuitscape.org/linkagemapper
Reshamwala, H. S. et al. Modelling the potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of wooly Wolf (Canis lupus chanco). Front. Eco Evol. 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.815621 (2022).
Druckman, D. & Swets, J. A. Enhancing human performance: Issues, theories, and techniques (National Academies, 1988).
Coetzee, B. W., Robertson, M. P., Erasmus, B. F., Van Rensburg, B. J. & Thuiller, W. Ensemble models predict important bird areas in Southern Africa will become less effective for conserving endemic birds under climate change. Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. 18(6), 701–710 (1968).
Jha, R. & Jha, K. K. Habitat prediction modelling for vulture conservation in Gangetic-Thar-Deccan region of India. Environ. Monit. Assess. 193(8), 532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09323-4 (2021).
Hirzel, A. H., Le Laya, G., Helfera, V., Randina, C. & Guisan, A. Evaluating the ability of habitat suitability models to predict species presences. Ecol. Model. 99, 142–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2006.05.017 (2006).
Zhao, J., Yu, L., Newbold, T. & Chen, X. Trends in habitat quality and habitat degradation in terrestrial protected areas. Conserv. Biol. 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14348 (2024).
Malik, H. N., Rehman, D. A., Setiyawan, Y. & Huda, R. Mapping habitat suitability and connectivity for the Sunda clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi) in batutegi protected forest, lampung, Indonesia. Biodiversistas 25(5). https://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d250543 (2024).
MoRTH Basic Road Statistics of India. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India, New Delhi, accessed on 10 October 2024; https://morth.nic.in/sites/default/files/BRS_Final.pdf (2021)
MoR Indian Railways Year Book. Ministry of Railways, Government of India, New Delhi, accessed on 10 October 2024. https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/stat_econ/2023/PDF%20Year%20Book%202021-22-English.pdf (2022).
Meijaard, E. & Groves, C. P. The geography of mammals and rivers in Mainland Southeast Asia. Developments Primatology: Progress Prospects. 305–329. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-31710-4_11 (2006).
Pareta, K. Historical morphodynamics and hydromorphogeobathymetry investigation of an area around Dibru-Saikhowa National park, Assam. Am. J. Geophys. Geochem. Geosyst. 7(2), 85–100 (2021).
Corbet, G.B. & Hill, J.E. Mammals of the Indomalayan Region: A Systematic Review (Oxford University Press, Oxford, and Natural History Museum, London, 1992, ISBN 019 854693 9, 488 pp).
Tobgay, S. & Mahavik, N. Potential habitat distribution of Himalayan red panda and their connectivity in Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary, Bhutan. Ecol. Evol. 10(23), 12929–12939 (2020).
Jha, R. & Jha, K. K. Projected future of slender-billed vulture: Habitat distribution modelling and population study in Northern India. Biologia 79, 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11756-023-01523-2 (2024).
Marchang, R. Land, agriculture and livelihood of scheduled tribes in North-East India. J. Land. Rural Stud. 6(1), 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/2321024917732905 (2017).
Ghade, R. et al. First record of a clouded Leopard predating on a Bengal slow loris. J. Wildl. Sci. 2(2), 66–67. https://doi.org/10.63033/JWLS.KUPV7861 (2025).
Wolf, C. & Ripple, W. J. Prey depletion as a threat to the world’s large carnivores. R. Soc. Open. Sci. 3(8), 160252. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160252 (2016).
Goswami, K., Choudhury, H. K. & Saikia, J. Factors influencing farmers’ adoption of Slash and burn agriculture in North East India. For. Policy Econ. 15, 146–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2011.11.005 (2012).